This article describes the personal pronoun systems of various Austronesian languages.
The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronouns below were reconstructed by Robert Blust.[1]
English | c=03 | Proto-Austronesian | c=04 | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c=01 | 1s. | c=02 | "I" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 2s. | c=02 | "you" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 3s. | c=02 | "he/she/it" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 1p. (inclusive) | c=02 | "we (and you)" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 1p. (exclusive) | c=02 | "we (but not you)" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 2p. | c=02 | "you all" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| |
c=01 | 3p. | c=02 | "they" | c=03 |
| c=04 |
|
In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.[2]
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.
Free polite | c=03 | Genitive 1 | c=04 | Genitive 2 | c=05 | Genitive 3 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 |
| c=02 | - | c=03 |
| c=04 |
| c=05 |
| |
2s. | c=01 |
| c=02 |
| c=03 |
| c=04 |
| c=05 |
| |
3s. | c=01 |
| c=02 | - | c=03 | (*=ia) | c=04 | - | c=05 |
| |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 |
| c=02 |
| c=03 |
| c=04 |
| c=05 |
| |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 |
| c=02 |
| c=03 |
| c=04 |
| c=05 |
| |
2p. | c=01 |
| c=02 |
| c=03 |
| c=04 |
| c=05 |
| |
3p. | c=01 |
| c=02 | - | c=03 | (*=da) | c=04 | - | c=05 |
|
Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun (1997).[3] Paul Jen-kuei Li's classification of Rukai dialects is given for reference.
Nominative | c=03 | Oblique | c=04 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | iɭaə | c=02 | -ɭao, nao- | c=03 | -i-a-ə | c=04 | -li | |
2s. | c=01 | imiaʔə | c=02 | -moʔo | c=03 | i-miaʔ-ə | c=04 | -ʔo | |
3s. (vis.) | c=01 | ana | c=02 | - | c=03 | -i-n-ə | c=04 | -(n)i | |
3s. (not vis.) | c=01 | ðona | c=02 | - | c=03 | -i-ð-ə | c=04 | -ða | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | imitə, ita | c=02 | -mita, -ta | c=03 | -i-mit-ə | c=04 | -ta | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | inamə | c=02 | -nai | c=03 | -i-nam-ə | c=04 | -nai | |
2p. | c=01 | inomə | c=02 | -nomi | c=03 | -i-nom-ə | c=04 | -nomi | |
3p. (vis.) | c=01 | ana-lo | c=02 | - | c=03 | -i-l-i-n-ə | c=04 | -l-i-ni | |
3p. (not vis.) | c=01 | ðona-lo | c=02 | - | c=03 | -i-l-i-ð-ə | c=04 | -l-i-ða |
Nominative | c=03 | Oblique | c=04 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | kunaku | c=02 | -(n)aku, naw- | c=03 | nakuanə | c=04 | -li | |
2s. | c=01 | kusu | c=02 | -su | c=03 | musuanə | c=04 | -su | |
3s. (vis.) | c=01 | kuini | c=02 | - | c=03 | inianə | c=04 | -ini | |
3s. (not vis.) | c=01 | kuiɖa | c=02 | - | c=03 | - | c=04 | - | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | kuta | c=02 | -ta | c=03 | mitaanə | c=04 | -ta | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | kunai | c=02 | -nai | c=03 | naianə | c=04 | -nai | |
2p. | c=01 | kunumi | c=02 | -numi, -nu | c=03 | numianə | c=04 | -numi | |
3p. (vis.) | c=01 | kuini | c=02 | - | c=03 | inianə | c=04 | -ini | |
3p. (not vis.) | c=01 | kuiɖa | c=02 | - | c=03 | - | c=04 | - |
Nominative | c=03 | Oblique | c=04 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | i kɨkɨ | c=02 | ku-, kɨkɨ | c=03 | ŋkua | c=04 | -li | |
2s. | c=01 | i musu | c=02 | su-, musu | c=03 | sua | c=04 | -su | |
3s. (vis.) | c=01 | i kini | c=02 | kini | c=03 | nia | c=04 | -ini | |
3s. (not vis.) | c=01 | i kiɖi | c=02 | kiɖi | c=03 | ɖia | c=04 | -ɖa | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | i miti | c=02 | ta-, miti | c=03 | mitia | c=04 | -ta | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | i knamɨ | c=02 | namɨ-, knamɨ | c=03 | nmaa | c=04 | -namɨ | |
2p. | c=01 | i mumu | c=02 | mu-, mumu | c=03 | mua | c=04 | -mu | |
3p. (vis.) | c=01 | i kini | c=02 | kini | c=03 | nia | c=04 | -ini | |
3p. (not vis.) | c=01 | i kiɖi | c=02 | kiɖi | c=03 | ɖia | c=04 | -ɖa |
The personal pronouns below are from the Tfuya dialect of Tsou, and are sourced from Zeitoun (2005:277).[4] Note that third-person pronouns are distinguished between those that are visible (abbreviated vis. below) or non-visible.
Bound (nominative) | c=03 | Bound (genitive) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | a'o | c=02 | -'o/-'u | c=03 | -'o/-'u | |
2s. | c=01 | suu | c=02 | -su/-ko | c=03 | -su/-ko | |
3s. (vis.) | c=01 | taini | c=02 | -ta | c=03 | -taini | |
3s. (not vis.) | c=01 | ic'o | c=02 | - | c=03 | -si | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | a'ati | c=02 | -to | c=03 | -to | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | a'ami | c=02 | -mza | c=03 | -mza | |
2p. | c=01 | muu | c=02 | -mu | c=03 | -mu | |
3p. (vis.) | c=01 | hin'i | c=02 | -hin'i | c=03 | -hin'i | |
3p. (not vis.) | c=01 | hee | c=02 | - | c=03 | -he |
The Pazeh personal pronouns below are from Li (2000).[5] (Note: vis. = visible, prox. = proximal)
Nominative | c=03 | Genitive | c=04 | Locative | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | yaku | c=02 | aku | c=03 | naki | c=04 | yakuan, yakunan | |
2s. | c=01 | isiw | c=02 | siw | c=03 | nisiw | c=04 | isiwan | |
2s. (prox.) | c=01 | imini | c=02 | mini | c=03 | nimini | c=04 | iminiyan | |
3s. (vis.) | c=01 | imisiw | c=02 | misiw | c=03 | nimisiw | c=04 | misiwan | |
3s. (not vis.) | c=01 | isia | c=02 | sia | c=03 | nisia | c=04 | isiaan | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | ita | c=02 | ta | c=03 | nita (ta-) | c=04 | itaan | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | yami | c=02 | ami | c=03 | nyam(i) | c=04 | yamian, yaminan | |
2p. | c=01 | imu | c=02 | mu | c=03 | nimu | c=04 | imuan | |
2p. (prox.) | c=01 | yamini | c=02 | amini | c=03 | naamini | c=04 | yaminiyan | |
3p. (vis.) | c=01 | yamisiw | c=02 | amisiw | c=03 | naamisiw | c=04 | yamisiwan | |
3p. (not vis.) | c=01 | yasia | c=02 | asia | c=03 | naasia | c=04 | yasiaan |
Saisiyat has an elaborate pronominal system (Hsieh & Huang 2006:93).[6]
Accusative | c=03 | Genitive | c=04 | Dative | c=05 | Possessive | c=06 | Locative | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | yako, yao | c=02 | yakin, iyakin | c=03 | ma'an | c=04 | 'iniman | c=05 | 'amana'a | c=06 | kanman | |
2s. | c=01 | So'o | c=02 | 'iso'on | c=03 | niSo | c=04 | 'iniSo | c=05 | 'anso'o'a | c=06 | kanSo | |
3s. | c=01 | sia | c=02 | hisia | c=03 | nisia | c=04 | inisia | c=05 | 'ansiaa | c=06 | kansia | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | 'ita | c=02 | 'inimita | c=03 | mita' | c=04 | 'inimita' | c=05 | 'anmita'a | c=06 | kan'ita | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | yami | c=02 | 'iniya'om | c=03 | niya'om | c=04 | 'iniya'om | c=05 | 'anya'oma | c=06 | kanyami | |
2p. | c=01 | moyo | c=02 | 'inimon | c=03 | nimon | c=04 | 'inimon | c=05 | 'anmoyoa | c=06 | kanmoyo | |
3p. | c=01 | lasia | c=02 | hilasia | c=03 | nasia | c=04 | 'inilasia | c=05 | 'anlasiaa | c=06 | kanlasia |
The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust (2003:207).[7] Note that there is only 1 form each for "we (exclusive)," "you (plural)" and "they."
Accusative | c=03 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | yaku | c=02 | yakin | c=03 | nak[8] | |
2s. | c=01 | ihu | c=02 | ihu-n | c=03 | m-ihu[9] | |
3s. | c=01 | cicu | c=02 | cicu-n | c=03 | cicu[10] | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | ita | c=02 | ita-n | c=03 | m-ita | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | yamin | c=02 | yamin | c=03 | yamin | |
2p. | c=01 | maniun | c=02 | maniun | c=03 | maniun | |
3p. | c=01 | caycuy | c=02 | caycuy | c=03 | caycuy |
The following Favorlang personal pronouns are from Li (2003:8). All of them are free forms. All genitive pronouns end with -a.
Genitive | c=03 | Nominative/Accusative | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | ka-ina | c=02 | na-a | c=03 | ina | |
2s. | c=01 | ijonoë | c=02 | joa, oa | c=03 | ijo | |
3s. | c=01 | icho | c=02 | choa | c=03 | icho | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | torro | c=02 | torroa | c=03 | - | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | namono | c=02 | namoa | c=03 | namo | |
2p. | c=01 | imonoë | c=02 | imoa | c=03 | imo | |
3p. | c=01 | aicho-es dechonoë | c=02 | choa | c=03 | decho |
The Wulai and Mayrinax Atayal personal pronouns below are sourced from Huang (1995).[11] In both varieties, the nominative and genitive forms are bound while the neutral and locative ones are free (unbound).
Genitive | c=03 | Locative | c=04 | Neutral | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | sakuʔ, kuʔ | c=02 | makuʔ, mu, kuʔ | c=03 | knan | c=04 | kuzing, kun | |
2s. | c=01 | suʔ | c=02 | suʔ | c=03 | sunan | c=04 | isuʔ | |
3s. | c=01 | - | c=02 | nyaʔ | c=03 | hiyan | c=04 | hiyaʔ | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | taʔ | c=02 | taʔ | c=03 | itan | c=04 | itaʔ | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | sami | c=02 | myan | c=03 | sminan | c=04 | sami | |
2p. | c=01 | simu | c=02 | mamu | c=03 | smunan | c=04 | simu | |
3p. | c=01 | - | c=02 | nhaʔ | c=03 | hgan | c=04 | hgaʔ |
Genitive | c=04 | Neutral | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | cu, ciʔ | c=02 | mu, miʔ | c=03 | kuing | |
2s. | c=01 | suʔ, siʔ | c=02 | suʔ | c=03 | isuʔ | |
3s. | c=01 | - | c=02 | niaʔ | c=03 | hiyaʔ | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | taʔ, tiʔ | c=02 | taʔ, tiʔ | c=03 | itaʔ | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | cami | c=02 | niam | c=03 | cami | |
2p. | c=01 | cimu | c=02 | mamu | c=03 | cimu | |
3p. | c=01 | - | c=02 | nhaʔ | c=03 | nhaʔ |
Oblique | c=03 | Independent possessive | c=04 | Subject | c=05 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | yaku | c=02 | kenan | c=03 | (ne-)naku | c=04 | =ku | c=05 | =mu | |
2s. | c=01 | isu | c=02 | sunan | c=03 | (ne-)nisu | c=04 | =su | c=05 | =su | |
3s. | c=01 | hiya | c=02 | hiyaan | c=03 | ne-hiya | c=04 | - | c=05 | =na | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | 'ita | c=02 | tenan | c=03 | (ne-)nita | c=04 | =ta | c=05 | =ta | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | yami | c=02 | menani | c=03 | (ne-)nami | c=04 | =nami | c=05 | =nami | |
2p. | c=01 | yamu | c=02 | munan | c=03 | (ne-)namu | c=04 | =namu | c=05 | =namu | |
3p. | c=01 | dehiya | c=02 | dehiyaan | c=03 | ne-dehiya | c=04 | - | c=05 | =deha |
The Siraya personal pronouns below are from Adelaar (1997).[12]
Actor or Possessive | c=03 | Topic | c=04 | Oblique | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | ĭau | c=02 | -(m)au | c=03 | -koh | c=04 | ĭau-an | |
2s. | c=01 | ĭmhu | c=02 | -(m)uhu, -(m)oho | c=03 | -kow | c=04 | ĭmhu-an | |
3s. | c=01 | teni | c=02 | tĭn | c=03 | teni | c=04 | tĭni-än (tĭni-an) | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | ĭmĭtta | c=02 | -(m)ĭtta, -(m)eta | c=03 | -kĭtta | c=04 | ĭmittä-n | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | ĭmi-an | c=02 | -(m)ian, -(m)iän | c=03 | -kame | c=04 | mian-än (mian-an) | |
2p. | c=01 | ĭmumi | c=02 | -(m)umi | c=03 | (-)kamu | c=04 | ĭmumi-än (ĭmumi-an) | |
3p. | c=01 | ta neini | c=02 | nein | c=03 | neini | c=04 | neini-än (neini-an) |
The Taivoan personal pronouns:[13] [14] [15]
1s. | iau | kuri | ku | iyaw-an | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2s. | imho | ko | (m)ho | imho-an | |
3s. | teni | ta teni | tin | tini-an | |
1p. (incl.) | imita | kita | (m)ita | imita-n | |
1p. (excl.) | imian | kame | (m)ian | imian-an | |
2p. | imomi | kamo | (m)omi | imomi-an | |
3p. | naini | ta naini | nin | naini-an |
The Kavalan personal pronouns below are from Li (2006:30).[16]
Genitive | c=03 | Oblique | c=04 | Locative | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | aiku, =iku | c=02 | zaku, -ku | c=03 | timaiku | c=04 | tamaikuan | |
2s. | c=01 | aisu, =isu | c=02 | zasu, -su | c=03 | timaisu | c=04 | tamaisuan | |
3s. | c=01 | aizipna tiyau | c=02 | zana, -na | c=03 | timaizipna tiyau | c=04 | tamaizipan tiyauan | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | aita, =ita | c=02 | zata, -ta, -kita | c=03 | timaita | c=04 | tamaitan | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | aimi, =imi | c=02 | zanyaq, -nyaq | c=03 | timaimi | c=04 | tamaimian | |
2p. | c=01 | aimu, =imu | c=02 | zanumi, -numi | c=03 | timaimu | c=04 | tamaimuan | |
3p. | c=01 | qaniyau | c=02 | zana, -na | c=03 | qaniyau | c=04 | taqaniyauan |
The Basay personal pronouns below are from Li (1999:639).[17]
Nominative | c=03 | Genitive | c=03 | Oblique | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | yaku | c=02 | kaku, -ku | c=03 | maku-, -aku; naku, -ak | c=04 | yakuan, kuan, kuanan | |
2s. | c=01 | isu | c=02 | kisu, -su | c=03 | misu, -isu; nisu, -su ~ -is | c=04 | isuan, suan, isuanan, suanan | |
3s. | c=01 | - | c=02 | -ia | c=03 | - | c=04 | - | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | mita | c=02 | kita, -ita | c=03 | mita, -ita; nita, -ta | c=04 | ..., ..., tianan | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | yami | c=02 | -mi | c=03 | yami, -ami; nami, -am | c=04 | yamian, mian, mianan | |
2p. | c=01 | imu | c=02 | kimu, -mu | c=03 | -imu; nimu, -im | c=04 | imuan, ..., imuanan | |
3p. | c=01 | - | c=02 | -ia | c=03 | - | c=04 | - |
Takivatan Bunun personal pronoun roots are (De Busser 2009:453):[18]
The tables of Takivatan Bunun personal pronouns below are sourced from De Busser (2009:441).
Foc. Agent (bound) | c=02 | Non-Foc. Agent (bound) | c=03 | Neutral | c=04 | Foc. Agent | c=05 | Locative | c=06 | Possessive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=rt | -ak- | c=01 | -(ʔ)ak | c=02 | -(ʔ)uk | c=03 | ðaku, nak | c=04 | sak, saikin | c=05 | ðakuʔan | c=06 | inak, ainak, nak | |
2s. | c=rt | -su- | c=01 | -(ʔ)as | c=02 | - | c=03 | suʔu, su | c=04 | - | c=05 | suʔuʔan | c=06 | isu, su | |
1p. (incl.) | c=rt | -at- | c=01 | - | c=02 | - | c=03 | mita | c=04 | ʔata, inʔata | c=05 | mitaʔan | c=06 | imita | |
1p. (excl.) | c=rt | -ðam- | c=01 | -(ʔ)am | c=02 | - | c=03 | ðami, nam | c=04 | ðamu, sam | c=05 | ðamiʔan | c=06 | inam, nam | |
2p. | c=rt | -(a)mu- | c=01 | -(ʔ)am | c=02 | - | c=03 | muʔu, mu | c=04 | amu | c=05 | muʔuʔan | c=06 | imu, mu |
Plural | |||||
[Root] | c=01 | -is- | c=02 | -in- | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proximal | c=01 | isti | c=02 | inti | |
Medial | c=01 | istun | c=02 | intun | |
Distal | c=01 | ista | c=02 | inta |
Iskubun Bunun personal pronouns are somewhat different (De Busser 2009:454).
Undergoer | c=03 | Possessive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | saikin, -ik | c=02 | ðaku, -ku | c=03 | inak, nak | |
2s. | c=01 | kasu, -as | c=02 | su | c=03 | isu, su | |
3s. | c=01 | saia | c=02 | saiʤa | c=03 | isaiʤa, saiʤa | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | kata, -ta | c=02 | mita | c=03 | imita | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | kaimin, -im | c=02 | ðami | c=03 | inam | |
2p. | c=01 | kamu, -am | c=02 | mu | c=03 | imu | |
3p. | c=01 | naia | c=02 | inaiʤa | c=03 | naiʤa |
The Kuɬaɬau Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982:14).
Genitive | c=03 | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | -aken, ti-aken | c=02 | ku-, ni-aken | c=03 | tjanu-aken | |
2s. | c=01 | -sun, ti-sun | c=02 | su-, ni-sun | c=03 | tjanu-sun | |
3s. | c=01 | ti-madju | c=02 | ni-madju | c=03 | tjai-madju | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | -itjen, ti-tjen | c=02 | tja-, ni-tjen | c=03 | tjanu-itjen | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | -amen, ti-amen | c=02 | nia-, ni-amen | c=03 | tjanu-amen | |
2p. | c=01 | -mun, t-mun | c=02 | nu-, ni-mun | c=03 | tjanu-mun | |
3p. | c=01 | ti-a-madju | c=02 | ni-a-madju | c=03 | tjai-a-madju |
The Nanwang Puyuma personal pronouns below are from Teng (2008:61-64).
Oblique: Direct | c=03 | Oblique: Indirect | c=04 | Oblique: Non-Subject | c=05 | Neutral | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | nanku | c=02 | kanku, kananku | c=03 | draku, drananku | c=04 | kanku | c=05 | kuiku | |
2s. | c=01 | nanu | c=02 | kanu, kananu | c=03 | dranu, drananu | c=04 | kanu | c=05 | yuyu | |
3s. | c=01 | nantu | c=02 | kantu, kanantu | c=03 | dratu, dranantu | c=04 | kantaw | c=05 | taytaw | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | nanta | c=02 | kanta, kananta | c=03 | drata, drananta | c=04 | kanta | c=05 | taita | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | naniam | c=02 | kaniam, kananiam | c=03 | draniam, drananiam | c=04 | kaniam | c=05 | mimi | |
2p. | c=01 | nanemu | c=02 | kanemu, kananemu | c=03 | dranemu, drananemu | c=04 | kanemu | c=05 | muimu | |
3p. | c=01 | nantu | c=02 | kantu, kanantu | c=03 | dratu, dranantu | c=04 | kantaw | c=05 | - |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) | c=03 | Genitive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | c=01 | =ku | c=02 | ku= | c=03 | ku= | |
2s. | c=01 | =yu | c=02 | nu= | c=03 | nu= | |
3s. | c=01 | - | c=02 | tu= | c=03 | tu= | |
1p. (incl.) | c=01 | =ta | c=02 | ta= | c=03 | ta= | |
1p. (excl.) | c=01 | =mi | c=02 | niam= | c=03 | mi= | |
2p. | c=01 | =mu | c=02 | mu= | c=03 | mu= | |
3p. | c=01 | - | c=02 | tu= | c=03 | tu= |
Ilokano personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. They also distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural.
Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
Absolutive | Ergative | Oblique | |||
Disjunctive | Enclitic (-ak)[20] | Enclitic (-ko)[21] | Disjunctive | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st person singular | siák [22] | -ak [23] | -k(o) [24] [25] | kaniák | |
1st person dual | datá, sitá | -ta | -ta | kadatá | |
2nd person singular | siká | -ka | -m(o) | kenká | |
3rd person singular | isú(na) | -Ø [26] | -na | kenkuána | |
1st person plural inclusive | datayó, sitayó | -tayó | -tayó | kadatayó | |
1st person plural exclusive | dakamí, sikamí | -kamí | -mi | kadakamí | |
2nd person plural | dakayó, sikayó | -kayó | -yo | kadakayó | |
3rd person plural | isúda | -da | -da | kadakuáda |
Like nouns, Tagalog personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
1st person singular | akó | ko | akin | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st person dual | kitá/kata[27] | nitá/nata | kanitá/kanata (ata) | |
1st person plural inclusive | tayo | natin | atin | |
1st person plural exclusive | kamí | namin | amin | |
2nd person singular | ikáw (ka) | mo | iyó | |
2nd person plural | kayó | ninyó | inyó | |
3rd person singular | siyá | niyá | kaniyá | |
3rd person plural | silá | nilá | kanilá |
Like nouns, Cebuano personal pronouns are categorized by case.
1st person singular | ako | akoa | nako | kanako | |
2nd person singular | ikaw | imoha | nimo | kanimo | |
3rd person singular | siya / sya | iyaha /iya | niya | kaniya | |
1st person plural inclusive | kita | atoa / ato | nato | kanato | |
1st person plural exclusive | kami | amoa / amo | namo | kanamo | |
2nd person plural | kamo | inyoha | ninyo | kaninyo | |
3rd person plural | sila | ilaha | nila | kanila |
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
1st person singular | ko | ako | ko | nako | |
2nd person singular | ka | imo | mo | nimo | |
3rd person singular | siya | iya | niya | niya | |
1st person plural inclusive | ta | ato | ta | nato | |
1st person plural exclusive | mi | amo | namo | namo | |
2nd person plural | mo | inyo | ninyo | ninyo | |
3rd person plural | sila | ila | nila | nila |
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay. However, there are more personal pronouns according to formality, see more at Malay grammar.
Person | Malay | English |
---|---|---|
First person | saya (standard, polite), aku (informal, familiar) | I, me |
kami | we, us: they and me, s/he and me | |
kita | we, us: you and me, you and us | |
Second person | anda (polite, formal), engkau, kamu (familiar, informal) | you, thou, thee |
anda sekalian (formal), kalian (informal) | you, y'all | |
Third person | ia ~ dia, dia orang | he, she, him, her |
ia ~ dia, mereka, dia orang | they, them |
aku | -ku | mejaku (my table) | |
kamu | -mu | mejamu (your table) | |
engkau | -kau | mejakau (your table) | |
ia | -nya | mejanya (his, her, their table) |
Person | Javanese | English |
---|---|---|
First person | aku (standard, informal), kula (formal), dalem/kawula (more formal/ humble) | I, me |
dhèwè/awaké dhèwè (informal), kita (formal) | we, us | |
Second person | kowé (informal), sampéyan (formal), panjenengan (more formal) | you |
kowé kabèh (informal), sampéyan sedaya (formal), panjenengan sedanten (more formal) | you, you all | |
Third person | dhèwèké/wongé (informal), piyantuné, panjenengané (formal), panjenenganipun (more formal) | he, she, him, her |
dhèwèké kabèh (informal, but rarely), wong-wong iku (informal) panjenenganipun sedanten, tiyang-tiyang/piyantun-piyantun puniki (more formal) | they, them |
Javanese lacks some personal pronouns. For the first person plural, Javanese use awaké dhèwè, literally meaning "the body itself" (cf. Malay : badannya sendiri) or just dhèwè, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For the third person singular, Javanese uses dhèwèké that means "itself" (cf. Malay:), from + -k- (archaic glottal stop)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic), or ' (cf. Malay:) that means "the person", from wong (person)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic, that is also used for demonstrative). The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabèh/sedaya/sedanten, all of them meaning "all" after the singular form.
aku | -ku/-(n)é kula/-ipun dalem | omahku/griyané kula/dalemipun dalem (my house) | |
kowe | -mu/-(n)é sampeyan/-ipun panjenengan | omahmu/griyané sampeyan/dalemipun panjenengan (your house) | |
dhèwèké | -(n)é/-ipun | omahé/griyané/dalemipun (his, her, their house) |
The Tongan cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronouns which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb) or postposed (after the verb). The first are the normal pronouns, the latter the stressed pronouns, which are also used as reflexive pronouns.
Position | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st person | exclusive (I, we, us) | preposed | u, ou, ku | ma | mau |
postposed | au | kimaua | kimautolu | ||
inclusive (one, we, us) | preposed | te | ta | tau | |
postposed | kita | kitaua | kitautolu | ||
2nd person | preposed | ke | mo | mou | |
postposed | koe | kimoua | kimoutolu | ||
3rd person | preposed | ne | na | nau | |
postposed | ia | kinaua | kinautolu |
Like many Austronesian languages, Samoan has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.
First person exclusive | a‘u, ‘ou | mā‘ua, mā | mātou | |
---|---|---|---|---|
First person inclusive | tā | tā‘ua, tā | tātou | |
Second person | ‘oe, ‘e | ‘oulua | ‘outou, tou | |
Third person | ia / na | lā‘ua | lātou |
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.
Singular (1)! | Dual (2) | Plural (3+) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | |||
Case | Nominative | au | ʻoe | ia | kāua | māua | ʻolua | lāua | kākou | mākou | ʻoukou | lākou | |
Genitive | a-class | kaʻu | kāu | kāna | kā kāua | kā māua | kā ʻolua | kā lāua | kā kākou | kā mākou | kā ʻoukou | kā lākou | |
o-class | koʻu | kou | kōna | kō kāua | kō māua | kō ʻolua | kō lāua | kō kākou | kō mākou | kō ʻoukou | kō lākou | ||
affectionate | kuʻu | kō | Only used in 1st and 2nd person singular. | ||||||||||
Accusative, Dative | iaʻu | iā ʻoe | iā ia | iā kāua | iā māua | iā ʻolua | iā lāua | iā kākou | iā mākou | iā ʻoukou | iā lākou |
The a-class possessive pronouns refer to alienable possession, as with boats, children, clothing, and spouses. The o-class possessive pronouns refer to inalienable (incapable of being begun or ended) possession, as with parents and body parts.[28]
. Blust. Robert. Robert Blust. Thao dictionary. 2003. Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica. Taipei. 9789570147858.