Hiligaynon language explained

Hiligaynon
Also Known As:Ilonggo
Nativename:Hiniligaynon, Inilonggo
States:Philippines
Region:Western Visayas, Negros Island Region, Soccsksargen, western Negros Oriental, southwestern portion of Masbate, coastal Palawan, some parts of southern Mindoro, some parts of Romblon and a few parts of Northern Mindanao
Ethnicity:Hiligaynon
Speakers: million
Date:2010
Ref:[1]
Speakers2:9.1 million total speakers[2]
4th most spoken native language in the Philippines[3]
Familycolor:Austronesian
Fam2:Malayo-Polynesian
Fam3:Philippine
Fam4:Greater Central Philippine
Fam5:Central Philippine
Fam6:Bisayan
Fam7:Central Bisayan
Script:Latin (Hiligaynon alphabet)
Hiligaynon Braille
Historically Baybayin (c. 13th–19th centuries)
Minority: Philippines
Agency:Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino
Iso2:hil
Iso3:hil
Map:Hiligaynon language map.png
Mapcaption:Areas where Hiligaynon is spoken in the Philippines
Notice:IPA
Glotto:hili1240
Glottorefname:Hiligaynon

Hiligaynon, also often referred to as Ilonggo or Binisayâ/Bisayâ nga Hiniligaynon/Inilonggo, is an Austronesian regional language spoken in the Philippines by about 9.1 million people, predominantly in Western Visayas, Negros Island Region, and Soccsksargen, most of whom belong to the Hiligaynon people.[4] It is the second-most widely spoken language in the Visayas and belongs to the Bisayan languages, and it is more distantly related to other Philippine languages.

It also has one of the largest native language-speaking populations of the Philippines, despite it not being taught and studied formally in schools and universities until 2012.[5] Hiligaynon is given the ISO 639-2 three-letter code hil, but has no ISO 639-1 two-letter code.

Hiligaynon is mainly concentrated in the regions of Western Visayas (Iloilo, Capiz, and Guimaras), Negros Island Region (Negros Occidental), and Soccsksargen (South Cotabato including General Santos, Sultan Kudarat, and North Cotabato). It is spoken in other neighboring provinces, such as Antique and Aklan in Western Visayas, Negros Oriental in Negros Island Region, Masbate in Bicol Region, and southern parts of Mindoro, Romblon and Palawan in Mimaropa.

It is spoken as a second language by Kinaray-a speakers in Antique, Aklanon/Malaynon speakers in Aklan, Capiznon speakers in Capiz, Cebuano speakers in Negros Oriental,[6] and spoken and understood by native speakers of Maguindanaon, Cebuano, Ilocano, Blaan, Tboli and other settler and indigenous languages in Soccsksargen in Mindanao.[7] There are approximately 9,300,000 people in and out of the Philippines who are native speakers of Hiligaynon and an additional 5,000,000 capable of speaking it with a substantial degree of proficiency.[8]

Nomenclature

Aside from Hiligaynon, the language is also referred to as Ilonggo, also spelled Ilongo, as it originated in Iloilo. Many speakers outside Iloilo argue, that this is an incorrect usage of the word Ilonggo. In precise usage, these people opine that Ilonggo should be used only in relation to the ethnolinguistic group of native inhabitants of Iloilo and the culture associated with native Hiligaynon speakers in that place, including their language. The disagreement over the usage of Ilonggo to refer to the language extends to Philippine language specialists and native laypeople.[9]

Historically, the term Visayan had originally been applied to the people of Panay. In terms of language, Visayan is more used today to refer to what is known as Cebuano. As pointed out by H. Otley Beyer and other anthropologists, the term Visayan was first applied only to the people of Panay and to their settlements eastward in the island of Negros, especially its western portion, and northward in the smaller islands, which now compose the province of Romblon.[10]

At the early part of Spanish Colonization in the Philippines, the Spaniards used the term Visayan only for these areas. While the people of Cebu, Bohol and Leyte were for a long time known only as Pintados. The name Visayan was later extended to these other islands because, as several of the early writers state, their languages are closely allied to the Visayan dialect of Panay.[11]

History

Historical evidence from observations of early Spanish explorers in the Archipelago shows that the nomenclature used to refer to this language had its origin among the people of the coasts or people of the Ilawod ("") in Iloilo, Panay, whom Spanish explorer Miguel de Loarca called Yligueynes[12] (or the more popular term Hiligaynon, also referred to by the Karay-a people as Siná).

The term Hiligaynon came from the root word ('to go downstream'), referring to a flowing river in Iloilo. In contrast, the Kinaray-a has been used by what the Spanish colonizers called Arayas, which may be a Spanish misconception of the Hiligaynon words or, or the current and more popular version Karay-a ('highlanders' – people of Iraya/highlands).[13]

Dialects

Similar to many languages in the Philippines, very little research on dialectology has been done on Hiligaynon. Standard Hiligaynon, is the dialect that is used in the province of Iloilo, primarily in the northern and eastern portions of the province. It has a more traditional and extensive vocabulary, whereas the Urban Hiligaynon dialect spoken in Metro Iloilo has a more simplified or modern vocabulary.

For example, the term for 'to wander,' 'to walk,' or 'to stroll' in Urban Hiligaynon is, which is also widely used by most of the Hiligaynon speakers, whereas in Standard Hiligaynon, is more commonly used, which has rarely or never been used by other dialects of the language. Another example,, ('this is it') in Standard Hiligaynon can be simplified in Urban Hiligaynon and become .

Some of the other widely recognized dialects of the language, aside from Standard Hiligaynon and Urban Hiligaynon, are Bacolodnon Hiligaynon (Metro Bacolod dialect), Negrense Hiligaynon (provincial Negros Occidental dialect that is composed of three sub-variants: Northern, Central and Southern Negrense Hiligaynon), Guimaras Hiligaynon, and Mindanao Hiligaynon (which incorporated some Cebuano and other languages due to the mass influx of migrants from Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor and Cebuano-speaking parts of Mindanao reside in the Soccsksargen area).[14]

Some native speakers also consider Kinaray-a (also known as Hiniraya or Antiqueño) and Capiznon dialects of Hiligaynon. However, linguists have classified Kinaray-a as a Western Bisayan language, while Capiznon is a Central Bisayan language closely related to Hiligaynon.[15] [16]

Phonology

Consonants

Labial! colspan="2"
Dental/
Alveolar
PalatalVelarGlottal
Nasalpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Stoppronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Fricativepronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Flappronounced as /link/
Approximantpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Consonants pronounced as /[d]/ and pronounced as /[ɾ]/ were once allophones but cannot interchange as in other Philippine languages: ('to forgive') [from {{Lang|hil|patawad}}, 'forgiveness'] but not , and ('from where') [from {{Lang|hil|diín}}, 'where'] but not .

Vowels

There are four main vowels: pronounced as //a//, pronounced as //i ~ ɛ//, pronounced as //o ~ ʊ//, and pronounced as //u//. pronounced as /[i]/ and pronounced as /[ɛ]/ (both spelled i) are allophones, with pronounced as /[i]/ in the beginning and middle and sometimes final syllables and pronounced as /[ɛ]/ in final syllables. The vowels pronounced as /[ʊ]/ and pronounced as /[o]/ are also allophones, with pronounced as /[ʊ]/ always being used when it is the beginning of a syllable, and pronounced as /[o]/ always used when it ends a syllable.

Writing system

Hiligaynon is written using the Latin script. Until the second half of the 20th century, Hiligaynon was widely written largely following Spanish orthographic conventions. Nowadays there is no officially recognized standard orthography for the language and different writers may follow different conventions. It is common for the newer generation, however, to write the language based on the current orthographic rules of Filipino.

A noticeable feature of the Spanish-influenced orthography absent in those writing following Filipino's orthography is the use of "c" and "qu" in representing pronounced as //k// (now replaced with "k" in all instances) and the absence of the letter "w" ("u" was formerly used in certain instances).

The core alphabet consists of 20 letters used for expressing consonants and vowels in Hiligaynon, each of which comes in an uppercase and lowercase variety.

Alphabet

The 1st to 10th letters
SymbolA aB bK kD dE eG gH hI iL lM m
Nameabakadaegahailama
Pronunciationpronounced as /[a/ə]/pronounced as /[aw]/pronounced as /[aj]/pronounced as /[b]/pronounced as /[k]/pronounced as /[d]/pronounced as /[ɛ/e]/pronounced as /[ɡ]/pronounced as /[h]/pronounced as /[ɪ/i]/pronounced as /[ɪo]/pronounced as /[l]/pronounced as /[m]/
in contextaaw/aoaybkdeghiiw/iolm
The 11th to 20th letters
SymbolN nNg ngO oP pR rS sT tU uW wY y
Namenangaoparasatauwaya
Pronunciationpronounced as /[n]/pronounced as /[ŋ]/pronounced as /[ɔ/o]/pronounced as /[oj]/pronounced as /[p]/pronounced as /[r]/pronounced as /[s]/pronounced as /[ʃʲ]/pronounced as /[t]/pronounced as /[ʊ/u]/pronounced as /[w]/pronounced as /[w]/pronounced as /[j]/
in contextnngooyprssytuuawy

Additional symbols

The apostrophe (') and hyphen (-) also appear in Hiligaynon writing, and might be considered separate letters.

The hyphen, in particular, is used medially to indicate the glottal stop 'when' 'evening; night'. It is also used in reduplicated words: 'daily, every day', from 'day, sun'. This marking is not used in reduplicated words whose base is not also used independently, as in 'bird'.

Hyphens are also used in words with successive sounds of pronounced as //g// and pronounced as //ŋ//, to separate the letters with the digraph NG. Like in the word 'was given'; without the hyphen, it would be read as pronounced as //gi.ŋaʔan// as opposed to pronounced as //gin.gaʔan//.

In addition, some English letters may be used in borrowed words.

Grammar

Determiners

Hiligaynon has three types of case markers: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. These types in turn are divided into personal, that have to do with names of people, and impersonal, that deal with everything else, and further into singular and plural types, though the plural impersonal case markers are just the singular impersonal case markers + (a contracted spelling for pronounced as //maŋa//), a particle used to denote plurality in Hiligaynon.[17]

 AbsolutiveErgativeOblique
singular impersonal, *
plural impersonal, *
singular personal
plural personal**

(*)The articles and means the following noun is indefinite, while tells of a definite noun, like the use of a in English as opposed to the; however, it is not as common in modern speech, being replaced by . It appears in conservative translations of the Bible into Hiligaynon and in traditional or formal speech.
(**)The plural personal case markers are not used very often and not even by all speakers. Again, this is an example of a case marker that has fallen largely into disuse, but is still occasionally used when speaking a more traditional form of Hiligaynon, using fewer Spanish loan words.

The case markers do not determine which noun is the subject and which is the object; rather, the affix of the verb determines this, though the -marked noun is always the topic.

Example
'The man ate the bread' 'The bread was eaten by the man' (literal)

Personal pronouns

 AbsolutiveErgative
(Postposed)
Ergative₂
(Preposed)
Oblique
1st person singular, ,
2nd person singular, ,
3rd person singular
1st person plural inclusive,
1st person plural exclusive
2nd person plural
3rd person plural

Demonstrative pronouns

 AbsolutiveErgative/ObliqueLocativeExistential
Nearest to speaker ('this, here')
Near to addressee or closely removed from speaker and addressee ('that, there')
Remote ('yon, yonder')

In addition to this, there are two verbal deictics,, meaning 'to come to the speaker', and, meaning 'to go yonder'.

Copula

Hiligaynon lacks the marker of sentence inversion of Tagalog/Filipino or of Akeanon. Instead sentences in SV form (Filipino:) are written without any marker or copula.

Examples: (Tagalog) / (Hiligaynon) = 'Sara is beautiful.' 'Sara is beautiful' (English)

There is no direct translation for the English copula to be in Hiligaynon. However, the prefixes and may be used to mean will be and became, respectively.

Example:
'It is nice to become rich.'

The Spanish copula ('to be') has also become a part of the Hiligaynon lexicon. Its meaning and pronunciation have changed compared to its Spanish meaning, however. In Hiligaynon it is pronounced as and means 'to live (in)/location' (Compare with the Hiligaynon word).

Example:
'I live in tabuk suba'. translates to 'other side of the river' and is also a barangay in Jaro, Iloilo.

Existential

To indicate the existence of an object, the word is used.

Example:

Hiligaynon linkers

When an adjective modifies a noun, the linker links the two.

Example:


'black dog'

Sometimes, if the linker is preceded by a word that ends in a vowel, glottal stop or the letter N, it becomes acceptable to contract it into -ng, as in Filipino. This is often used to make the words sound more poetic or to reduce the number of syllables. Sometimes the meaning may change as in, '(the) good morning', and, the greeting for 'good morning'.

The linker is used if a number modifies a noun.

Example:


'six dogs'

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronouns of Hiligaynon are as follows:,,,,,, and

means 'where'.
Example:
'Where are you now?'

A derivation of,, is used to inquire the birthplace or hometown of the listener.
Example:
'Where are you from?'

means 'when'
Example:
'When is that?'

means 'who'
Example:
'Who is your friend?'

means 'why'
Example:
'Why won't you go?'

means 'how', as in "How are you?"
Example:
'How is the store?'

means 'what'
Example:
'What are you reading?'

A derivative of,, means 'how', as in "How do I do that?"
Example:
'How can I get home?'

A derivative of is, an archaic phrase which can be compared with .
Example:
'How art thou?'

means 'how much/how many'
Example:
'How many are with you?'

A derivative of,, asks the numerical order of the person, as in, "What place were you born in your family?"(first-born, second-born, etc.) This word is notoriously difficult to translate into English, as English has no equivalent.
Example:
'What place were you born into your family?'

A derivative of,, asks the monetary value of something, as in, "How much is this beef?"
Example:
'How much is this beef?'

Verbs

Focus

See also: Austronesian alignment.

As it is essential for sentence structure and meaning, focus is a key concept in Hiligaynon and other Philippine languages. In English, in order to emphasize a part of a sentence, variation in intonation is usually employed – the voice is stronger or louder on the part emphasized. For example:

  1. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  2. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  3. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  4. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.

Furthermore, active and passive grammatical constructions can be used in English to place focus on the actor or object as the subject:

The man stole the rice. vs. The rice was stolen by the man.

In contrast, sentence focus in Philippine languages is built into the construction by grammatical elements. Focus is marked by verbal affixes and a special particle prior to the noun in focus. Consider the following Hiligaynon translations of the above sentences:

('man'; 'to steal'; 'rice'; 'market'; 'sibling'; 'hand')[18]

Summary table

Trigger, Mode and Aspect Affixes for Hiligaynon[19]
TRIGGERASPECTMODE
NeutralPurposiveDurativeCausativeDistributiveCooperativeDubitative
AgentGoalUnreal -on pag—on paga—on pa—on pang—on pakig—on iga—on
Real gin- gin- gina- ginpa- ginpang- ginpakig- ø
ReferentUnreal -an pag—an paga—an pa—an pang—an pakig—an iga—an
Real gin—an gin—an gina—an ginpa—an ginpang—an ginpakig—an ø
AccessoryUnreal i- ipag- ipaga- ipa- ipang- ipakig- iga-
Real gin- gin- gina- ginpa- ginpang- ginpakig- ø
ActorUnreal -um- mag- maga- ø mang- makig- ø
Real -um- nag- naga- ø nang- nakig- ø
PatientActorUnreal maka- makapag- makapaga- makapa- makapang- mapapakig- ø
Real naka- nakapag- nakapaga- nakapa- nakapang- napapakig- ø
GoalUnreal ma- mapag- mapaga- mapa- mapang- mapakig- ø
Real na- napag- napaga- napa- napang- napakig- ø

Reduplication

Hiligaynon, like other Philippine languages, employs reduplication, the repetition of a root or stem of a word or part of a word for grammatical or semantic purposes. Reduplication in Hiligaynon tends to be limited to roots instead of affixes, as the only inflectional or derivational morpheme that seems to reduplicate is -pa-. Root reduplication suggests 'non-perfectiveness' or 'non-telicity'. Used with nouns, reduplication of roots indicate particulars which are not fully actualized members of their class. Note the following examples.

Reduplication of verbal roots suggests a process lacking a focus or decisive goal. The following examples describe events which have no apparent end, in the sense of lacking purpose or completion. A lack of seriousness may also be implied. Similarly, reduplication can suggest a background process in the midst of a foreground activity, as shown in (5).

When used with adjectival roots, non-telicity may suggest a gradualness of the quality, such as the comparison in (6). In comparative constructions the final syllables of each occurrence of the reduplicated root are accented. If the stress of the second occurrence is shifted to the first syllable, then the reduplicated root suggests a superlative degree, as in (7). Superlatives can also be created through prefixation of to the root, as in .

While non-telicity can suggest augmentation, as shown in (7), it can also indicate diminishment as in shown in (9), in contrast with (8) (note the stress contrast). In (8b),, accented in the superlative pattern, suggests a trajectory of improvement that has not been fully achieved. In (9b), suggests a trajectory of decline when accented in the comparative pattern. The reduplicated implies sub-optimal situations in both cases; full goodness/wellness is not achieved.

Vocabulary

Derived from Spanish

Hiligaynon has a large number of words derived from Spanish including nouns (e.g., from, 'saint'), adjectives (e.g., from, 'green'), prepositions (e.g., from, 'before'), and conjunctions (e.g., from, 'but').

Nouns denoting material items and abstract concepts invented or introduced during the early modern era include ('ship'), ('shoes'), ('knife'), ('spoon'), ('fork'), ('plate'), ('shirt'), and ('change', as in money). Spanish verbs are incorporated into Hiligaynon in their infinitive forms:,,, . The same holds true for other languages such as Cebuano. In contrast, incorporations of Spanish verbs into Tagalog for the most part resemble, though are not necessarily derived from, the vos forms in the imperative:,,, . Notable exceptions include, (from) and (from).

Examples

Numbers

Just like other Philippine languages that are influenced by Spanish, Hiligaynon uses 2 systems of numbers, one from its Austronesian roots and one derived from Spanish.

NumberHiligaynon-NativeHiligaynon-Spanish
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100
1,000
10,000
1,000,000
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
Seventh
Eighth
Ninth
Tenth

Days of the week

The names of the days of the week are derived from their Spanish equivalents.

DayNative NamesMeaningCastilian Derived
Sundayroot word:, 'open'; 'Starting Day'
Mondayroot word: 'next'; 'Next Day'
Tuesdayliteral meaning 'Busy Day'; 'Busiest Day'Martes
Wednesdayroot word:, 'exchange'; 'Barter' or 'Market Day'
Thursdayliteral meaning: 'rush'; 'Rushing of the Work Day'
Fridayliteral meaning: 'Completing of the Work Day'
Saturdayroot word:, 'lay-down to rest'; 'Rest Day'

Months of the year

MonthNative NameCastilian Derived
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

Quick phrases

EnglishHiligaynon
Yes.
No.
Thank you.
Thank you very much!
I'm sorry.
Help me!
Delicious!
Take care (Also used to signify goodbye)
Are you angry/scared?
Do you feel happy/sad?
I don't know/I didn't know
I don't care
That's wonderful/marvelous! /
I like this/that!
I love you.

Greetings

EnglishHiligaynon
Hello!
Good morning.
Good noon.
Good afternoon.
Good evening.
How are you? (informal)
I'm fine.
I am fine, how about you?
How old are you?
I am 24 years old.
My name is...
I am Erman.
What is your name?
Until next time.

This/that/what

EnglishHiligaynon
What is this/that?
This is a sheet of paper.
That is a book.
What will you do?/What are you going to do?
What are you doing?
My female friend
My male friend
My girlfriend/boyfriend

Space and time

EnglishHiligaynon
Where are you now?
Where shall we go?
Where are we going?
Where are you going?
We shall go to Iloilo.
We're going to Bacolod.
I am going home.
Where do you live?
Where did you come from? (Where have you just been?)
Have you been here long?
(To the) left.
(To the) right.
What time is it?
It's ten o'clock.
What time is it now?

Ancient times of the day

!Time!Name!Meaning
06:00 AMDaybreak
10:00 AM or Time for chickens to lay eggs
12:00 noon or Noon time or midday
02:00 PMEarly afternoon
04:00 PMTime for feeding the swine
06:00 PMTwilight
08:00 PM or Supper time
10:00 PMTime to lay the banig or sleeping mat
11:00 PMFirst cockerel's crow
12:00 midnightMidnight
02:00 AMSecond cockerel's crow
04:00 AMThird cockerel's crow
05:00 AM or Waking up time

When buying

EnglishHiligaynon
May/Can I buy?
How much is this/that?
I'll buy the...
Is this expensive?
Is that cheap?

The Ten Commandments

Literal translation as per photo:

  1. Believe in God and worship only him
  2. Do not use the name of God without purpose
  3. Honor the day of the Lord
  4. Honor your father and mother
  5. Do not kill
  6. Do not pretend to be married against virginity (don't commit adultery)
  7. Do not steal
  8. Do not lie
  9. Do not have desire for the wife of your fellow man
  10. Do not covet the riches of your fellow man

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Notable Hiligaynon writers

See also

Further reading

External links

Dictionaries

Learning resources

Writing system (Baybayin)

Primary texts

Secondary Literature

Notes and References

  1. Web site: 2010 Census of Population and Housing, Report No. 2A - Demographic and Housing Characteristics (Non-Sample Variables) . en . 2022-05-02.
  2. Web site: Hiligaynon . Lewis . M. Paul . 2009 . www.ethnologue.com/ . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110717030930/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hil . July 17, 2011 . December 27, 2022.
  3. Web site: 2010 Census of Population and Housing, Report No. 2A - Demographic and Housing Characteristics (Non-Sample Variables) . en . 2022-05-02.
  4. Web site: Hiligaynon . Lewis . M. Paul . 2009 . www.ethnologue.com/ . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110717030930/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hil . July 17, 2011 . July 23, 2011.
  5. Book: Ulrich Ammon. Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Norbert Dittmar. Klaus J. Mattheier. Walter de Gruyter. 2006. 978-3-11-018418-1. 3. 2018.
  6. Web site: Islas de los Pintados: The Visayan Islands . . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110927161432/http://www.admu.edu.ph/offices/mirlab/panublion/islas.html . September 27, 2011 . March 29, 2013.
  7. Web site: Arellano . Bernardo Muerong III . October 9, 2020 . Ang Pagpangayaw sa Dutang Ginsaad: A History of Migration and Settlement of Ilonggos in Central Mindanao, 1951-1960s . October 16, 2023 . Researchgate.net.
  8. Philippine Census, 2000. Table 11. Household Population by Ethnicity, Sex and Region: 2000
  9. Web site: My Working Language Pairs. www.bj-informatique.com/. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20101206233634/http://www.bj-informatique.com/langtrad.php. December 6, 2010. January 3, 2011.
  10. G. Nye Steiger, H. Otley Beyer, Conrado Benitez, A History of the Orient, Oxford: 1929, Ginn and Company, pp. 122-123.
  11. G. Nye Steiger, H. Otley Beyer, Conrado Benitez, A History of the Orient, Oxford: 1929, Ginn and Company, pp. 122-123.
  12. Cf. BLAIR, Emma Helen & ROBERTSON, James Alexander, eds. (1903). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. Volume 05 of 55 (1582–1583). Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord BOURNE. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. . OCLC 769945704. "Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century.", pp. 120-121.
  13. Cf. Miguel de Loarca, Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (Arevalo, June 1582) in BLAIR, Emma Helen & ROBERTSON, James Alexander, eds. (1903). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. Volume 05 of 55 (1582–1583). Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord BOURNE. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. . OCLC 769945704. "Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century.", pp. 128 and 130.
  14. Web site: Ang Pagpangayaw sa Dutang Ginsaad: A History of Migration and Settlement of Ilonggos in Central Mindanao, 1951-1960s . 11 March 2024 . Arellano III . Bernardo . 2020 . 10.13140/RG.2.2.12033.48483.
  15. Web site: Capiznon. ethnologue.com. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130203093113/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cps. 2013-02-03.
  16. Web site: Kinaray-a. ethnologue.com. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130203145249/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=krj. 2013-02-03.
  17. Book: Wolfenden, Elmer . Hiligaynon Reference Grammar . registration . 1971 . University of Hawaii Press . Hawaii . 0-87022-867-6 . 61–67.
  18. Book: Motus, Cecile . Hiligaynon Lessons . University of Hawaii Press . 112–4 . 1971 . 0-87022-546-4.
  19. Book: Wolfenden, Elmer . Hiligaynon Reference Grammar . registration . University of Hawaii Press . 136–7 . 1971 . 0-87022-867-6.
  20. Web site: FLAVIO ZARAGOSA Y CANO: (1892-1965) . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111105234549/http://www.nhi.gov.ph/downloads/ca0045.pdf . 2011-11-05 . National Historical Commission of the Philippines.
  21. Web site: 2019-09-27 . Conrado Saquian Norada . 2022-11-26 . Panitikan.com.ph . en-US.
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  25. Web site: 2010-05-21 . Today in History . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120323042105/http://bayanihan.org/2010/05/21/today-in-history-87/ . 2012-03-23 . Bayanihan.