List of languages by first written account explained

This is a list of languages arranged by age of the oldest existing text recording a complete sentence in the language. It does not include undeciphered writing systems, though there are various claims without wide acceptance, which, if substantiated, would push backward the first attestation of certain languages. It also does not include inscriptions consisting of isolated words or names from a language. In most cases, some form of the language had already been spoken (and even written) considerably earlier than the dates of the earliest extant samples provided here.

A written record may encode a stage of a language corresponding to an earlier time, either as a result of oral tradition, or because the earliest source is a copy of an older manuscript that was lost. An oral tradition of epic poetry may typically bridge a few centuries, and in rare cases, over a millennium. An extreme case is the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda: the earliest parts of this text date to 1500 BC,[1] while the oldest known manuscripts date to 1040 AD.[2] Similarly the oldest Avestan texts, the Gathas, are believed to have been composed before 1000 BC, but the oldest Avestan manuscripts date from the 13th century AD.[3]

Before 1000 BC

Writing first appeared in the Near East at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. A very limited number of languages are attested in the area from before the Bronze Age collapse and the rise of alphabetic writing:

In East Asia towards the end of the second millennium BC, the Sino-Tibetan family was represented by Old Chinese.

There are also a number of undeciphered Bronze Age records:

Earlier symbols, such as the Jiahu symbols or Vinča symbols, are believed to be proto-writing, rather than representations of language.

Date Language Attestation Notes
2690 BC Egyptian hieroglyphs constituting the earliest complete sentence known, found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (2nd Dynasty), Umm El Qa'ab. This sentence refers to the entombed king's father and translates as, "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."[4] So-called "proto-hieroglyphic" inscriptions, such as those on the Narmer Palette, are known from 3300 BC on, although these instances of written Egyptian are rebus-like and confined to semi-grammatical captions, labels, and proper names. See also, Naqada III and Abydos, Egypt.
c. Instructions of Shuruppak, the Kesh temple hymn and other cuneiform texts from Shuruppak and Abu Salabikh (Fara period)[5] "proto-literate" period from about 3500 BC (see Kish tablet); administrative records at Uruk and Ur from 2900 BC.Various texts from Ur during the Early Dynastic I–II period (c. 2800 BC) show syllabic elements with clear signs of the Sumerian language.[6]
2600 BC A hymn to the sun-god Šamaš found at Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ.[7] Some proper names attested in Sumerian texts at Tell Harmal from about 2800 BC.[8] Fragments of the Legend of Etana at Tell Harmal 2600 BC.[9] A few dozen pre-Sargonic texts from Mari and other sites in northern Babylonia.[10]
2400 BC Ebla tablets[11]
Protective spells in Pyramid Texts 235, 236, 281, 286 from the Pyramid of Unas, written in hieroglyphic script but unintelligible as Egyptian[12] [13] Ugaritic is the earliest Northwest Semitic language to be unambiguously attested within its native context, 1300 BC.
2250 BC Awan dynasty peace treaty with Naram-Sin[14] [15] The Proto-Elamite script attested from 3100 BC remains undeciphered; the identity of the language communicated thereby is unknown. The date of 2250 BC is based off the advent of Linear Elamite.
temple inscription of Tish-atal in Urkesh[16]
1800 BC Bilingual Amorite-Akkadian vocabulary[17] See also tablet CUNES 50-11-020 (P411253)
1700 BC Anitta text in Hittite cuneiform[18] Isolated Hittite words and names occur in Assyrian texts found at Kültepe, from the 19th century BC.
Hittite texts CTH 751–754[19]
1450 BC Linear B tablet archive from Knossos[20] [21] These are mostly administrative lists, with some complete sentences.[22]
1400 BC Hieroglyphic Luwian monumental inscriptions, Cuneiform Luwian tablets in the Hattusa archives Isolated hieroglyphs appear on seals from the 18th century BC.
1400 BC Hittite texts CTH 725–745
1300 BC tablets from Ugarit[23] [24]
1250 BC oracle bone and bronze inscriptions from the reign of Wu Ding[25]

First millennium BC

The earliest known alphabetic inscriptions, at Serabit el-Khadim (1500 BC), appear to record a Northwest Semitic language, though only one or two words have been deciphered.In the Early Iron Age, alphabetic writing spread across the Near East and southern Europe. With the emergence of the Brahmic family of scripts, languages of India are attested from after about 300 BC.

There is only fragmentary evidence for languages such as Iberian, Tartessian, Galatian and Messapian.The North Picene language of the Novilara Stele from 600 BC has not been deciphered.The few brief inscriptions in Thracian dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC have not been conclusively deciphered.[26] The earliest examples of the Central American Isthmian script date from 500 BC, but a proposed decipherment remains controversial.[27]

Date Language Attestation Notes
1000 BC Ahiram epitaph[28]
10th century BC royal inscriptions from Aramean city-states[29]
10th century BC Gezer calendar[30] Paleo-Hebrew employed a slightly modified Phoenician alphabet, hence the uncertainty between which language is attested here.
850 BC Amman Citadel Inscription[31]
840 BC
820 BC Inscriptions in Assyrian cuneiform script[32]
800 BC Paleo-Phrygian inscriptions at Gordion[33]
8th century BC Sabaean (Old South Arabian) mainly boustrophedon inscriptions from Yemen[34]
8th century BC prayer inscription at Bayir, Jordan[35] It is a bi-lingual inscription written in Old Arabic which was written in the undifferentiated North Arabian script (known as Thamudic B) and Canaanite which remains undeciphered.
700 BC proto-Corinthian vase found at Tarquinia[36]
7th century BC Vetusia Inscription and Fibula Praenestina[37]
600 BC
600 BC inscriptions from Caria and Egypt
600 BC Ceres inscription found at Falerii[38]
text painted on the handle of a krater found near Tolfa[39]
550 BC Esk 168 and 177[40] The Taymanitic script is mentioned in an 8th century BC document from Carchemish.
550 BC Warrior of Capestrano[41]
mid-6th century BC funerary inscriptions at Este[42]
late 6th century BC Lemnos Stele[43]
500 BC
500 BC inscriptions CO-48 from Pristino (Como) and VA-6 from Vergiate (Varese)[44] [45] Inscriptions from the early 6th century consist of isolated names.
300 BC Iovilae from Capua[46] Coin legends date from the late 5th century BC.
3rd century BC Transalpine Gaulish inscriptions in Massiliote Greek script[47]
3rd century BC Tabula Veliterna
260 BC Edicts of Ashoka[48] Potsherds inscribed with Brahmi letters from Anuradhapura have been dated 400 BC, and range from isolated letters to names in the genitive case.[49] [50]
200 BC Elu (Sri Lankan Prakrit) Brahmi inscription at Mihintale[51]
Old Tamilrock inscription ARE 465/1906 at Mangulam caves, Tamil Nadu[52] (Other authors give dates from late 3rd century BC to 1st century AD.[53] [54]) Pottery inscribed with personal names has been found at Keeladi, a site that was occupied between the 6th century BC and 1st century AD.[55]

5th century BC inscriptions on potsherds found in Kodumanal, Porunthal and Palani have been claimed as Tamil-Brahmi,[56] [57] but this is disputed.[58]

2nd century BC graffiti on the temple of Amun at Dukki Gel, near Kerma[59]
146 BC Punic-Libyan Inscription at Dougga[60]
100 BC
1st century BC ostraca at Nisa and Qumis[61]
1st century BC Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana, and Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions (both near Chittorgarh)[62] The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (shortly after 150 AD) is the oldest long text.[63]

First millennium AD

From Late Antiquity, we have for the first time languages with earliest records in manuscript tradition (as opposed to epigraphy). Thus, Classical Armenian is first attested in the Armenian Bible translation.

The Vimose inscriptions (2nd and 3rd centuries) in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet appear to record Proto-Norse names. Some scholars interpret the Negau helmet inscription (100 BC) as a Germanic fragment.

Date Language Attestation Notes
150
200 Single Proto-Norse words are found on the Øvre Stabu spearhead (second half of the 2nd century) and the Vimose Comb (c. 160).
292 Stela 29 from Tikal[64] A brief undeciphered inscription at San Bartolo is dated to the 3rd century BC.[65]
312–313 Ancient Letters, found near Dunhuang[66]
328
350 inscriptions of Ezana of Aksum[67]
350 Đông Yên Châu inscription found near Tra Kiêu[68]
4th century Gothic Bible, translated by Wulfila[69] A few problematic Gothic runic inscriptions may date to the early 4th century.
400 THT 274 and similar manuscripts[70] Some Tocharian names and words have been found in Prakrit documents from Krorän dated 300.[71]
430 Bir el Qutt inscriptions[72]
450 A date of 350 has been claimed for the Tagarthi inscription found in Shivamogga district, but this is disputed.[73] Kavirajamarga (850) is the oldest literary work.
478-490[74] inscription at the Tekor Basilica[75] Mesrop Mashtots is traditionally held to have translated an Armenian Bible in 434.
5th century Bergakker inscription[76] There is no consensus on the interpretation of the text, leading to the language uncertainty.
510 formula for freeing a serf in the Malbergse Glossen on the Salic law[77] Some scholars consider the formula to be in Frankish instead.[78]
6th century A sentence in the Collatio beati Augustini cum Pascentio ariano (Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria, MS G.V. 26)[79] Copy of a text originally written in the first half of the 5th century.
second half of 6th century Pforzen buckle[80]
mid-6th century Mokgan No. 221[81]
575 Erragudipadu inscription Telugu place names are found in Prakrit inscriptions from the 2nd century AD.
611 Angkor Borei inscription K. 557/600[82]
650 mokkan wooden tablets[83] Poems in the Kojiki (711–712) and Nihon Shoki (720) have been transmitted in copied manuscripts.
650–700 Sinai palimpsest M13
683 Kedukan Bukit Inscription[84]
7th century commentary on the Book of the Later Han by Li Xian citing the mostly lost Dongguan Hanji[85]
7th century manuscripts mainly from Dunhuang[86] Some fragments of Khotanese Saka have been dated to the 5th and 6th centuries
7th century ostracon from Saqqara[87] [88]
late 7th century
700 The Undley bracteate (5th century) and West Heslerton brooch (650) have fragmentary runic inscriptions.
732
750 Würzburg glosses[89] Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century consist of personal names, patronymics and/or clan names.[90] [91]
765 Lhasa Zhol Pillar[92] Dated entries in the Tibetan Annals begin at 650, but extant manuscripts postdate the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang in 786.[93]
late 8th century Praecepta medica (Leyden, Codex Vossianus Lat. F. 96 A)[94] A botanical manuscript in Latin and Breton
750–900
800 runic inscriptions
804 initial part of the Sukabumi inscription, found near Kediri[95]
early 9th century Heiland and Old Saxon Genesis, found in Palatinus Latinus 1447[96] The 9th century Old Saxon Baptismal Vow appears to be a copy from the 8th century; however, scholars dispute whether it is in Old Saxon or another Germanic language[97] [98] [99] [100]
9th century The status of the Edakkal-5 inscriptions dating back to 3rd or late 4th century is contested.[101] [102] Ramacaritam (12th century) is the oldest literary work.
9th century Cadfan Stone (Tywyn 2)[103]
late 9th century Sequence of Saint Eulalia[104] The earliest surviving manuscript with the text for the Oaths of Strasbourg (842), traditionally considered the first Old French text, dates from the 11th century.[105]
882 dated royal inscription[106]
900 Tomida femina
959–974 Old LeoneseNodicia de Kesos
960–963 Placiti Cassinesi[107] The Veronese Riddle (800) is considered a mixture of Italian and Latin.[108]
986
Kiev Missal[109] Cyril and Methodius translated religious literature from 862, but only later manuscripts survive.
The inscription is in Devanagari script, but the language has been disputed between Marathi and Konkani scholars.[110] [111]
10th century a sentence in the Würzburg manuscript[112]

1000–1500 AD

Date Language Attestation Notes
972–1093
late 10th–early 11th century
1000 inscription at Kirkjubøur[113]
1000 Novgorod Codex[114]
1000 Glosas Emilianenses The first word on the Hand of Irulegi (1st century BC) has been claimed as Basque.[115] [116]
1028 Jurament Feudal[117]
11th century kharjas appended to Arabic and Hebrew poems[118] Isolated words are found in glossaries from the 8th century.[119]
11th century Humac tablet (variously dated to between the 10th and 12th century), Inscription of Krk, Inscription of Župa Dubrovačka, Plomin tablet, Valun tablet
1100 Zelančuk inscription[120]
1113
1114 palm-leaf manuscript from Uku Baha, Patan[121]
inscription found on the bank of the Arkhara River[122]
1175 Notícia de Fiadores[123] The Notícia de Torto and the will of Afonso II of Portugal, dated 1214, are often cited as the first documents written in Galician-Portuguese.[124] A date prior to 1175 has been proposed for the Pacto dos Irmãos Pais.[125]
1189
1192 Funeral Sermon and Prayer There are isolated fragments in earlier charters such as the charter of Veszprém (1000) and the charter of Tihany (1055). Some scholars believe that the language of the Szarvas inscription (8th century) is Old Hungarian.
mid-12th century AM 237 a fol. manuscript[126]
late 12th century AM 655 IX 4to manuscript[127]
1200 Previously the Glosas Emilianenses and the Nodicia de kesos were considered the oldest texts in Spanish; however, later analyses concluded them to be Aragonese and Leonese, respectively.[128]
1200
1200–1230 founding charter of the Litoměřice chapter
1224–1225
early 13th century
early 13th century prophesy in the cartulary of Glasney College[129] A 9th century gloss in De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius: ud rocashaas is controversially interpreted.[130] [131]
1250 fragments of the elder Westrogothic law in Codex Holm. B 193[132]
1250 Mahanayakaprakash ("Light of the supreme lord") by Shitikantha[133]
1270
1272 blessing in the Worms mahzor
1274
1292 Some scholars argue that the stele is a forgery. The next oldest inscription is the Wat Sri Chum inscription from the early 14th century.[134]
late 13th century manuscripts AM 37 4to, AM 24 4to, SKB C 37, SKB B 74[135]
1350 Oghuz Turkic (including Azeri and Ottoman Turkish)
1350 Gutasaga and Gutalagen, found in Codex Holm. B 64[136]
1369 Basel Epigram
1372 Abur inscriptions
1386 Rhymed sentence in Latin codex[137] Toponyms, personal names and glosses are found from 11th century.[138]
early 15th century poems of Chandidas[139] The 10th-century Charyapada are written in a language ancestral to Bengali, Assamese and Oriya.
1440 Quốc âm thi tập[140] List of names in Chữ nôm date from the early 13th century.[141]
1462 Some scholars interpret a few lines in the Bellifortis text (1405) as Albanian.[142]
1470 single sentence in a German travel journal[143] The first printed book in Finnish is Abckiria (1543) by Mikael Agricola.
1470 Il Cantilena
1485 bronze bell inscription in Dafang County, Guizhou[144]
inscriptions in an adaptation of Malayalam script[145]

After 1500

Date Language Attestation Notes
1503 hand-written Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary and Creed[146] Katekizmas (1547) by Martynas Mažvydas was the first printed book in Lithuanian.
1517
1521 Cyrillic orthographic manual of Constantin Kostentschi from 1420 documents earlier written usage.[147] Four 16th century documents, namely Codicele Voronetean, Psaltirea Scheiana, Psaltirea Hurmuzachi and Psaltirea Voroneteana, are arguably copies of 15th century originals.[148]
1530 Nicholas Ramm's translation of a hymn
1535 Wanradt-Koell catechism
1536 Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa by Fernão de Oliveira. by convention.[149]
1549 Talib Husan by Ghulam Husan earliest extant manuscript found using the Sylheti Nagri script.[150]
1550 Doctrina cristiana en lengua española y mexicana[151] The Breve y mas compendiosa doctrina cristiana en lengua mexicana y castellana (1539) was possibly the first printed book in the New World. No copies are known to exist today.
1554 works of Diego Sánchez de Badajoz, published as edited by his nephew as Recopilación en metro
1554
1557 a catechism[152]
1561
1589 1562 letter from Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq that was published later[153] 9th century Gothic graffiti in Crimea show some Crimean Gothic influence in spelling.[154]
1593 Doctrina Cristiana
1600 Huarochirí Manuscript by a writer identified only as "Thomás"[155] Paraphrased and annotated by Francisco de Ávila in 1608.
1600
1610 Book of Common Prayer[156]
1619 primer and missal by Nicolaus Andreaus[157] Early literary works were mainly based on dialects underlying modern Ume Sami and Pite Sami. First grammar and dictionary in 1738.
1638 treaty with Dutch governor[158]
1639
1639modern AsturianCuando examen les abeyes by Antón de Marirreguera[159]
1650 Travel Book of Evliya Çelebi[160]
1651 copy of Xayru 'l-bayān in the library of the University of Tübingen[161] The Pata Khazana, purporting to date from the 8th century, is considered by most scholars to be a forgery.
1663 Also known as the Eliot Indian Bible or the Algonquian Bible
1693 copy of a Tunisian poem written by Sheykh Hassan el-Karray[162] Before 1700, lyrics of songs were not written in Tunisian Arabic but in Classical Arabic.
1695 No longer known to exist.[163]
Riwayar Annabi Musa by Abdallah Suka[164]
Vocabula Gallica[165]
18th century Vocabulário da Língua Geral dos Índios das Américas (anonymous)[166] Another source is the dictionary by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1867) and the vocabulary (1936) by José Joaquim Machado de Oliveira. The language is now extinct.
1711 letters written in Kilwa[167]
1718 Herlein fragment[168]
1728 Catechism An early wordlist was published in 1589 by Richard Hakluyt. First grammar in 1743
1736 Grönländische Grammatica by Paul Egede[169] A poor-quality wordlist was recorded by John Davis in 1586.[170]
1743 sentence recorded in Macau by George Anson[171]
1747 Beskrifning öfwer Sweriges Lapmarker by Pehr Högström[172]
1757 Lisette quitté la plaine by Duvivier de la Mahautière[173] [174]
1788 notebooks of William Dawes[175] [176]
1795 doggerel verses[177]
1800 "Eskimo Grammar" by Moravian missionaries A list of 17 words was recorded in 1576 by Christopher Hall, an assistant to Martin Frobisher.
1806 Heinrich Lictenstein – Upon the Language of the Beetjuana The first complete Bible translation was published in 1857 by Robert Moffat.
1819 Sequoyah's Cherokee syllabary
1820 Kendal began compiling wordlists in 1814.
1820 A short word list was collected by James King in 1778.
1823 John Bennie's Xhosa reading sheet Complete Bible translation 1859
Vai syllabary created by Momolu Duwalu Bukele.
1833 First grammar book 1841 and complete Bible translation 1881
1837 Incwadi Yokuqala Yabafundayo First grammar book 1859 and complete Bible translation 1883
1839 Dictionary and grammar by Karl Bernhard Wiklund in 1890-1891
1845 A Santali Primer by Jeremiah Phillips[178]
1849 Ocerki Arxangel'skoj Gubernii by Vasilij Vereščagin[179]
1851 Wordlists were included in Noord en Oost Tartarije (1692) by Nicolaas Witsen and Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (1730) by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg.
1854 Primer and catechism published in 1859.
1856 articles by William Ridley[180] Basic vocabulary collected by Thomas Mitchell in 1832.
1864 letter by P. Durpatz[181]
1872 reduced to writing by the Berlin Missionaries First complete Bible translation 1936
1878 Gospel of Matthew
1882 O dialecto mirandez by José Leite de Vasconcelos[182] The same author also published the first book written in Mirandese: Flores mirandezas (1884)[183]
1884 Gospel of Matthew in Cyrillic
1885 Although the first known text by native speakers dates to 1885, the first record of the language is a list of words recorded in 1793 by Alexander MacKenzie.
1885
1886 notes by Johann Flierl, Wilhelm Poland and Georg Schwarz, culminating in Walter Roth's The Structure of the Koko Yimidir Language in 1901.[184] [185] A list of 61 words recorded in 1770 by James Cook and Joseph Banks was the first written record of an Australian language.[186]
1891 grammatical sketch by M.J. van Baarda[187]
1893
1900 grammar by Matthäus Rascher[188]
1903 grammar by Egide de Boeck
1905 Calindaru lu rumeri din Istrie by Andrei Glavina and Constantin Diculescu[189] Compilation of Istro-Romanian popular words, proverbs and stories.
1940 A Kamoro wordlist recorded in 1828 by Modera and Müller, passengers on a Dutch ship, is the oldest record of any of the non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea.[190]
1968 small booklet published with praises of their kings and a little history A translation of the New Testament of the Bible was completed in 1986; translation of the Old Testament is ongoing.
1984 survey by William B. McGregor[191]

By family

Attestation by major language family:

since about the 27th century BC

21st century BC

since about the 17th century BC

1250 BC

200 BC (Tamil)

3rd century AD

4th century AD (Cham)

5th century (Georgian)

7th century (Udi)

7th century (Khmer)

8th century (Old Turkic)

8th century

8th century (Old Nubian)

1000

12th century

13th century (Possibly related Khitan language: 10th century)

13th century (Thai)

16th century (Classical Nahuatl)

16th century

17th century (Abkhaz, Adyghe, Ubykh)

18th century

19th century (Cherokee)

20th century

Constructed languages

Date Language Attestation Notes
1879 created by Johann Martin Schleyer
1887 Unua Libro created by L. L. Zamenhof
1907 based on Esperanto
1917 created by J. R. R. Tolkien
1921 Interlingue (as Occidental) Transcendent Algebra by Estonian linguist Jacob Linzbach.[192] created by Edgar de Wahl
1928 created by Otto Jespersen
1935 Sona, an auxiliary neutral language created by Kenneth Searight
1943 InterglossaLater became Glosa created by Lancelot Hogben
1951 created by the International Auxiliary Language Association
1955 created by James Cooke Brown
1984 created by Marc Okrand
1987 based on Loglan, created by the Logical Language Group
1999 created by Mark Hučko
2001 created by Marc Okrand
2005 Avatar created by Dr. Paul Frommer and James Cameron
2009 created by George R. R. Martin and David J. Peterson for Game of Thrones
2013 , created by Madhan Karky for

See also

References

Notes
Works cited

Notes and References

  1. Book: Jamison, Stephanie W. . Sanskrit . 6–32. The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Roger D. . Woodward. Cambridge University Press . 2008 . 978-0-521-68494-1. pp. 6–7.
  2. Book: Witzel , Michael . The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu. 257–348. https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf. Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. Michael. Witzel. Harvard University Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. Cambridge, MA. 1997. 978-1-888789-03-4. 2018-10-04. 2020-08-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20200804151138/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf. live. p. 259.
  3. Book: Hale, Mark . Avestan . 101–122. The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Roger D. . Woodward. Cambridge University Press . 2008 . 978-0-521-68494-1.
  4. Book: Allen. James P.. The Ancient Egyptian Language. Cambridge University Press. 2003. 978-1-107-66467-8. 2. James Peter Allen.
  5. Book: Hayes, John . 1990 . A Manual of Sumerian: Grammar and Texts . limited . UNDENA . Malibu, CA. . 978-0-89003-197-1 . 268–269.
  6. Book: Walker . C. B. F. . Reading The Past Cuneiform . 1987 . British Museum . 0-7141-8059-9 . 11–12 .
  7. Book: History of the Akkadian Language (Volume 1: Linguistic Background and Early Periods) . Akkadian and Cuneiform . . 2021 . 978-90-04-44520-8 . Vita . Juan-Pablo . Handbook of Oriental Studies . 66–74 . Leiden . 10.1163/9789004445215_004 . 240743074 . The oldest known Akk text is a hymn to the sungod Šamaš⁵ found in Ereš (Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ, ca. 2600).⁶.
  8. Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 31–71.
  9. Book: Atrahasis: An Ancient Hebrew Deluge Story. Clay, Albert T.. Albert Tobias Clay. Book Tree. 2003. 978-1-58509-228-4. 34. 2020-11-30. 2021-10-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20211017171916/https://books.google.com/books?id=K1QhcIrHB68C. live.
  10. Book: Hasselbach, Rebecca . Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag . 2005 . 978-3-447-05172-9 . 8.
  11. Book: Akkadian and Eblaite . John . Huehnergard . Christopher . Woods . 83–145 . The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum . Roger D. . Woodard . Cambridge University Press . 2008 . 978-0-521-68497-2 .
  12. News: Earliest Semitic Text Revealed In Egyptian Pyramid Inscription. ScienceDaily. en. 2019-01-06. 2019-01-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20190107015725/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/070129100250.htm. live.
  13. Web site: לחשים בקדם־כנענית בכתבי הפירמידות: סקירה ראשונה של תולדות העברית באלף השלישי לפסה"נ האקדמיה ללשון העברית. hebrew-academy.org.il. he-IL. 2019-01-06. 2013-05-21. 2018-01-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20180106201924/http://hebrew-academy.org.il/2013/05/21/%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%9D-%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA-%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91%D7%99-%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99/. live.
  14. Book: Stolper, Matthew W. . Elamite . Roger D. . Woodard . The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum . Cambridge University Press . 2008 . 47–82 . 978-0-521-68497-2 .
  15. Book: Potts, D.T. . The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State . limited . Cambridge University Press . 1999 . 978-0-521-56496-0 . 111 .
  16. Book: van Soldt, Wilfred H. . Alexander J. . De Voogt . Irving L. . Finkel . The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity . limited . BRILL . 2010 . 978-90-04-17446-7 . The adaptation of Cuneiform script to foreign languages . 117–128 .
  17. Web site: Two Remarkable Vocabularies: Amorite-Akkadian Bilinguals! . cairn.info . 2022 .
  18. Book: Watkins, Calvert . Hittite . 6–30 . The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor . limited . Roger D. . Woodard . Cambridge University Press . 2008 . 978-0-521-68496-5 .
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