List of massacres in the Soviet Union explained

The following is a list of massacres that took place in the Soviet Union. For massacres that took place in countries that were once part of the Soviet Union, see the list of massacres in that country.

NameDateLocationDeathsNotes
Execution of the Romanov family1918, July 16–17Yekaterinburg11Justified by the Bolsheviks as necessary to prevent the anti-communist White Army from rescuing them. The USSR repeatedly denied that Vladimir Lenin was responsible.
Explosion in Leontievsky Lane1919, September 25Place of mass gathering of people in the premises of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Leontievsky Lane, Tverskoy District, Moscow12
White Terror1918–1922Nationwide20,000[1] to 300,000[2] For the purposes of political repression and elimination of opposition to White rule.
Red Terror1918–1922Nationwide100,000[3] – 1,300,000[4] For the purposes of political repression and elimination of opposition to Bolshevik rule.
Tambov Rebellion19 August 1920 – June 1921Tambov Governorate15,000+ (figure of deaths due to execution only)Total of 240,000[5] rebels and civilians killed by communist forces.
Free City Incident1921, June 28Svobodny, Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Republic36-272The extent of casualties varies depending on the data. Data shows 36 deaths, 864 prisoners, and 59 missing, while other data records 272 deaths, 31 drownings, 250 missing, and 917 prisoners
First Decossackization1919–1920sDon and Kuban regionsAnywhere from 10,000 executed to 300,000 - 500,000 both deported and killed[6] The decossackization is sometimes described as a genocide of the Cossacks,[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] although this view is disputed, with some historians asserting that this label is an exaggeration. The process has been described by scholar Peter Holquist as part of a "ruthless" and "radical attempt to eliminate undesirable social groups" that showed the Soviet regime's "dedication to social engineering".[12] [13]
1921–1923 famine in Ukraine1921–1923Ukraine200,000–1,000,000No systematic records of fatalities were then made.
August Uprising1924Georgia7,000-10,000[14] After the failed 1924 August uprising in Georgia, Red army detachments exterminated entire families, including women and children, in a series of raids.[15] Mass executions also took place in prisons,[16] where people were shot without trial. Hundreds were shot directly in railway trucks, so that the dead bodies could be removed faster.[17]
Kazakh famine of 1930–331930 - 1933Kazakhstan1.5 - 2.3 million[18] Some historians and scholars consider that this famine amounted to genocide of the Kazakhs.[19] The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan.[20] [21] Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country.[22]
Holodomor1932c- 1933Ukraine3.5-3.9 Million[23] in Ukraine; in total: ~5.7 to 8.7 millionScholars continue to debate "whether the man-made Soviet famine was a central act in a campaign of genocide, or whether it was designed to simply cow Ukrainian peasants into submission, drive them into the collectives and ensure a steady supply of grain for Soviet industrialization."[24] Whether the Holodomor is a genocide is a significant issue in modern politics and there is no international consensus on whether Soviet policies would fall under the legal definition of genocide.[25] [26] A number of governments, such as the United States and Canada, have recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide. However, David R. Marples states such decisions are mostly based on emotions, or on pressure by local groups rather than hard evidence.[27] Robert Davies, Stephen Kotkin, and Stephen Wheatcroft reject the notion that Stalin intentionally wanted to kill the Ukrainians, but exacerbated the situation by enacting bad policies and ignorance of the problem,[28] [29] which, according to historian John Archibald Getty, was the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars who studied the newly opened Soviet archives in 2000.[30] In contrast according to Simon Payaslian, the scholarly consensus classifies the Holodomor as a genocide.[31]
Karatal Affair1930Karatal, Kazakhstan18-19[32] Kazakhs families were shot dead in their attempt to flee to China with some of the victims including women and children even being raped.[33] [34]
Blacklisting of villages in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and the North Caucasus1932-1933Ukraine, Kazakhstan, North Caucasus (Kuban)Unknown; hundreds of farms and dozens of districts affected. Some blacklisted areas[35] in Kharkiv could have death rates exceeding 40%[36] while in other areas such as Stalino blacklisting had no particular effect on mortality.[37] 'Blacklisting, synonymous with a "board of infamy", was one of the elements of agitation-propaganda in the Soviet Union, and especially Ukraine and the ethnically Ukrainian Kuban region in the 1930s, coinciding with the Holodomor. Blacklisting was also used in Soviet Kazakhstan.[38] The blacklist system was formalized in 1932 by the November 20 decree "The Struggle against Kurkul Influence in Collective Farms".[39] A blacklisted collective farm, village, or raion (district) had its monetary loans and grain advances called in, stores closed, grain supplies, livestock and food confiscated as a "penalty" and was cut off from trade. Its Communist Party and collective farm committees were purged and subject to arrest, and their territory was forcibly cordoned off by the OGPU secret police. In the end 37 out of 392 districts[40] along with at least 400 collective farms where put on the "black board" in Ukraine, more than half of the farms in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast alone.[41] In 1932, 32 (out of less than 200) districts in Kazakhstan that did not meet grain production quotas were blacklisted.
Sealing of the Ukrainian borders during the Soviet famine1932-1933Ukraine150,000Joseph Stalin signed the January 1933 secret decree named "Preventing the Mass Exodus of Peasants who are Starving", restricting travel by peasants after requests for bread began in the Kuban and Ukraine; Soviet authorities blamed the exodus of peasants during the famine on anti-Soviet elements, saying that "like the outflow from Ukraine last year, was organized by the enemies of Soviet power."[42] During a single month in 1933, 219,460 people were either intercepted and escorted back or arrested and sentenced.[43] It has been estimated that there were some 150,000 excess deaths as a result of this policy, and one historian asserts that these deaths constitute a crime against humanity.[44] In contrast, historian Stephen Kotkin argues that the sealing of the Ukrainian borders caused by the internal passport system was in order to prevent the spread of famine-related diseases.[45]
Searches for hidden grain in UkraineEarly 1933UkrainePossibly 550,000 people had food confiscated from them and an unknown number of them died[46] Between January and mid-April 1933, a factor contributing to a surge of deaths within certain regions of Ukraine during the period was the relentless search for alleged hidden grain by the confiscation of all foodstuffs from certain households, which Stalin implicitly approved of through a telegram he sent on the 1 January 1933 to the Ukrainian government reminding Ukrainian farmers of the severe penalties for not surrendering grain they may be hiding.[47] In his review of Anne Applebaum's book Mark Tauger gives a rough estimate of those affected by the search for hidden pra reserves: "In chapter 10 Applebaum describes the harsh searches that local personnel, often Ukrainian, imposed on villages, based on a Ukrainian memoir collection (222), and she presents many vivid anecdotes. Still she never explains how many people these actions affected. She cites a Ukrainian decree from November 1932 calling for 1100 brigades to be formed (229). If each of these 1100 brigades searched 100 households, and a peasant household had five people, then they took food from 550,000 people, out of 20 million, or about 2-3 percent."[48]
Great purge1936–1938Nationwide700,000[49] [50] –1,200,000[51] Ordered by Joseph Stalin.
Finnish Operation of the NKVD1937–1938Nationwide8,000–25,000Mass arrest, execution and deportations of persons of Finnish origin by NKVD during the Great Purge.[52]
Estonian Operation of the NKVD1937–1938Nationwide4,672Mass arrest, execution and deportations of persons of Estonian origin by NKVD during the Great Purge[53]
Polish Operation of the NKVD1937, August – 1938, NovemberNationwide111,091[54] Largest ethnic shooting during the Great Purge. Polish Nationalism was a very big movement in The USSR at the time, resulting in the deaths of many Polish Nationalists dubbed as "Fascists" by The Soviet Union.
1937 mass execution of Belarusians1937, 29–30 OctoberByelorussian SSR132[55] Mass extermination of Belarusian writers, artists and statespeople by the Soviet Union occupying authorities[56]
Kurapaty massacres1937–1941Kurapaty, Minsk, Byelorussian SSR7,000–30,000NKVD summary executions
Sandarmokh1937-38Sandarmokh, Karelia9,000 (Disputed)[57] [58] [59] Mass executions of prisoners.
Vinnytsia massacre1937–1938Vinnytsia, Ukraine9,000[60] –11,000[61] (Disputed)
Massacre at Dem'ianiv Laz1939–1941Pasieczna (Now Pasichna), Soviet-occupied Poland, modern Ivano-FrankivskAt least 524At least 524 captives (including 150 women with dozens of children) were shot by the NKVD[62]
Katyn massacre1940, April–MayKatyn Forest, Kalinin and Kharkiv prisons 21,857[63] Mass executions of Polish nationals by NKVD.
Lunca massacre1941, 7 FebruaryLunka, Ukraine600[64] Hundreds of civilians (mostly ethnic Romanians) were killed when Soviet Border troops opened fire on them while they were attempting to forcefully cross the border from the Soviet Union to Romania, near the village of Lunca, now Lunka in Chernivtsi Oblast.[65]
Zhestianaya Gorka massacre1941–1943Zhestianaya Gorka, Novgorod Oblast2,600Massacre of partisans and civilians, mostly women and children by Schutzmannschaft and Nazi collaborators.[66]
Fântâna Albă massacre1941, April 1Northern Bukovina44–3,000[67] [68] Between 44 and 3,000 civilians were killed by Soviet Border Troops as they attempted to cross the border from the Soviet Union to Romania near the village of Fântâna Albă, now Staryi Vovchynets in Chernivtsi Oblast, Ukraine
NKVD prisoner massacres1941, June–JulyOccupied Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Baltic states~100,000The NKVD prisoner massacres were a series of mass executions of political prisoners carried out by the NKVD, the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs of the Soviet Union, across Eastern Europe, primarily Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia. After the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the NKVD troops were supposed to evacuate political prisoners into the interior of the Soviet Union, but the hasty retreat of the Red Army, the lack of transportation and other supplies and the general disregard for legal procedures often meant that the prisoners were executed. Approximately two thirds of the 150,000 prisoners[69] were murdered; most of the rest were transported into the interior of the Soviet Union, but some were abandoned in the prisons if there was no time to execute them, and others managed to escape.[70]
NKVD prisoner massacre in LutskJune 23, 1941Lutsk, Eastern Poland/Western Ukrainearound 2,000Mass execution of Prisoners, mainly Ukrainians and Poles by the NKVD and NKGB
NKVD prisoner massacre in TartuJuly 9, 1941Tartu, Estonia193193 detainees were shot in Tartu prison and the Gray House courtyard by NKVD
Lychkovo massacreJuly 18, 1941Lychkovo, DemyanskyAround 41Mass killing of 41 people, primarily children, by Nazi Germany[71] [72]
Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre1941, August 27–28Kamianets-Podilskyi23,60023,600 Hungarian and Ukrainian Jews were murdered by the German Police Battalion 320 along with Friedrich Jeckeln's Einsatzgruppen, Hungarian soldiers, and the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police[73]
Medvedev Forest massacre1941, September 11Medvedev Forest, near Oryol157Soviet massacre of political prisoners
1941 Odessa massacre1941, October 22-24 Odessa34,000–100,000Romanian and German troops, supported by local authorities, massacred Jews in Odesa and the surrounding towns in Transnistria
Petrushino Massacres1941, October 29 - 1943, August 21outskirts of Taganrog7,000Over 7,000 Soviet civilians and POWs, and members of the Taganrog resistance movement were massacred by the German army, with the assistance of non-German divisions, during their occupation of Taganrog
Rostov-on-Don massacre1942–1943Zmievskaya Balka, Rostov-on-Don27,000 Jews and other Soviet CiviliansOrganized by Nazi forces; part of the Holocaust in Russia[74]
Massacre of Feodosia1941, December 29, 1942, January 1Feodosia, Crimea160Murder of 160 German POWs by Red Army
Dzyatlava massacre1942, April 30- August 10Zdzięcioł (now, Dzyatlava)3,000–5,000About 3,000–5,000 Jews were killed near the town of Dzyatlava by a German death squad aided by the Lithuanian and the Belarusian Auxiliary Police battalions[75]
Nizhny Chir massacre1942, September 2Nizhny Chir, Stalingrad Oblast47Killing of 47 children with intellectual disabilities organized by Nazi forces[76] [77]
Massacre of GrischinoFebruary 1943Pokrovsk, Ukrainian SSR596 A total of 596 prisoners of war, nurses, construction workers and female communication personnel (Nachrichtenhelferinnen) were killed.[78]
Khatyn massacre1943, March 22KhatynAround 149 people, including 75 children under 16 years of age.[79] Extermination of a whole village in Belarus by Nazi Germany
Bolshoye Zarechye massacre1943, October 30Bolshoye Zarechye, Leningrad Oblast66Soviet civilians were shot and burned alive by the German Army.[80] [81]
Krasukha massacre1943, November 27Krasukha, Pskov Oblast280Soviet civilians were burned alive by the German Army[82]
Khaibakh massacre1944, February 27Chechnya, Soviet Union230–700[83] [84] During the deportation of the Chechen and Ingush peoples. Siberian winter was too hard to handle for the Chechens, who lived in a mostly hot climate.
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars1944, May 18 – 20CrimeaVarious estimates
Soviet famine of 1946–1947 in Ukraine1946–1947Ukraine300,000–1,000,000 [85]
1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Kazakhstan1951, April 10 – June 18Kazakh SSR41 Anti-Chechen pogrom[86]
Vorkuta uprising1953, starting July 19Vorkuta42[87] [88] [89]
Kengir uprising1954, May 6 – June 26Kengir, Steplag, Kazakh SSR500–700[90] [91]
1956 Georgian demonstrations1956, March 4-10Tbilisi, Georgian SSR22-800[92] [93]
Novocherkassk massacre1962, June 1 – 2Novocherkassk, Rostov Oblast, Russian SFSR26[94] Massacre of rallying unarmed civilians
1971 Krasnodar bus bombing1971, June 14Krasnodar10A homemade suitcase bomb placed near the gas tank by mentally ill Peter Volynsky exploded, killing 10 persons and wounding 20–90 others
1971, October 10Near Baranovo, Naro-Fominsky District25
Aeroflot Flight 109 bombing1973, May 18Chita-Kadala International Airport, Chita Oblast81An Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-104B flying from Irkutsk Airport to Chita Airport exploded in flight after a passenger detonated a bomb when refused passage to China. The plane crashed east of Lake Baikal, killing all 82 passengers.[95]
Letipea massacre1976, August 8Letipea, Estonian SSR11 (including the perpetrator)A conflict between workers and drunken Soviet border guards escalated when one of the guards opened fire with a machine gun, killing multiple workers as well as one of his fellow guards
1977 Moscow bombings1977, January 8Moscow7A bomb was detonated on a Moscow Metro train as it rolled into Kurskaya station. Seven people died and 37 were seriously injured
Korean Air Lines Flight 0071983, September 1Sea of Japan, near Moneron Island, west of Sakhalin Island269Korean Air Lines Flight 007 is shot down by Soviet Union Air Force Su-15 Flagon pilot Major Gennadi Osipovich near Moneron Island when the commercial aircraft enters Soviet airspace. All 269 on board are killed, including U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald. * September 6 – The Soviet Union admits to shooting down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, stating that the pilots did not know it was a civilian aircraft when it violated Soviet airspace.
Aeroflot Flight 6833 Hijacking1983, November 18Tbilisi, Georgian SSR to Leningrad87 Georgians hijack Aeroflot Flight 6833 in hopes of escaping the Soviet Union. The siege ended with Soviet forces storming the plane and resulting in the deaths of 3 passengers, 2 crew members and 3 hijackers. The remaining hijackers were executed.
Jeltoqsan massacre1986, December 16 – 19Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR168-1,000[96] Mass anti-government protests, break out across the Kazakh SSR, resulting in the massacre of over 168–1,000 protesters
Sumgait massacre1988, February 26 – March 1Sumgait, Azerbaijan SSR32
Aeroflot Flight 3739 Hijacking1988, March 8Veshchevo9 (including 5 of the hijackers)A Tu-154B-2 (СССР-85413), was hijacked by the Ovechkin family, a family of 11 who were attempting to flee the Soviet Union and demanded to be flown to London. The flight engineer persuaded the hijackers to allow a stop in Finland to refuel, but the pilot tricked the hijackers by landing at Veshchevo instead. Realizing they had been tricked, one of the hijackers killed a flight attendant, Tamara Zharkaya. After landing, the aircraft was stormed and another hijacker blew himself up, starting a small fire in the tail that was quickly put out. Four hijackers committed suicide and three passengers also died during the takeover. Two surviving hijackers were tried and received prison sentences
Gugark pogromMarch – December 1988Gugark District, Armenian SSR11 (per official Soviet data)21 (per Arif Yunusov)Anti-Azerbaijani pogroms in Response to similar pogroms of Armenians in Azerbaijan
Kirovabad pogrom1988, NovemberKirovabad, Azerbaijan SSR7 (per Soviet authorities),[97] 130 (per human rights activists)[98]
Tbilisi Massacre1989, April 9 Tbilisi, Georgia21[99] [100] hundreds of civilians wounded and killed with sapper spades
Fergana massacre1989, June 3 - 12Fergana Valley, Uzbek SSR97at least 97 Meskhetian Turks had been killed and over 1000 wounded by Uzbek extremists
Novouzenskaya massacre1989, June 17-28Zhanaozen, Kazakh SSR~200Interethnic clashes on June 17-28, 1989 in the city of Novy Uzen of the Kazakh SSR between groups of Kazakhs and people from the North Caucasus.[101] [102]
January Massacre1990, January 19 – 20 Baku, Azerbaijan131-170[103] [104] Known also as the Black January (Qara Yanvar)
1990 Dushanbe riots1990, February 12 - 14Dushanbe, Tajik SSR26Anti-Armenian and anti-communist unrest in Dushanbe, 565 injured.
1990 Osh clashes1990, June 4 - 6Osh, Kyrgyz SSR300-600 deaths (official estimate); 1,000-10,000 (unofficial estimate)Ethnic conflict between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks
1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing1990, August 10Khanlar, Azerbaijan15–20A bus carrying about 60 passengers from Georgia's capital Tbilisi to Aghdam in Azerbaijan is bombed in Khanlar (now Goygol). The bombing was carried out by two ethnic Armenians named Armen Avanesyan and Mikhail Tatevosov, who were members of Vrezh, an underground militant anti-Azerbaijan group operated out of Rostov-on-Don.
January Events1991, January 11 – 13Vilnius, Lithuania14[105] After Lithuania recently declared its independence, the USSR sent in the army to crackdown on the "nationalist government". Immediately, hundreds of thousands of unarmed Lithuanians went to the streets to defend the local parliament, TV tower, the radio station and other key buildings. 14 people died during the violence. In 2019, Lithuania sentenced 67 people for war crimes and crimes against humanity.[106]
Patrikeyevo massacree1991, July 14Patrikeyevo, Bazarnosyzgansky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast11Privates Vitaly Semenikhin and Muradov killed 8 soldiers, 3 warrant officers and wounded 2 other soldiers.[107] [108] [109] [110] [111]

See also

Notes and References

  1. Book: Rinke. Stefan. Wildt. Michael. 2017 . Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions: 1917 and Its Aftermath from a Global Perspective. Campus Verlag. 58 . 978-3593507057.
  2. Book: Эрлихман, Вадим. Потери народонаселения в XX веке.. Издательский дом «Русская панорама». 2004. 5931651071.
  3. Book: Lincoln, W. Bruce . W. Bruce Lincoln . 1989 . Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War . Simon & Schuster . 384 . 0671631667 . "...the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.".
  4. Rinke, Stefan; Wildt, Michael (2017). Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions: 1917 and Its Aftermath from a Global Perspective. Campus Verlag. pp. 57–58. .
  5. Sennikov, B.V. (2004). Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia. Moscow: Posev. In Russian.
  6. [Robert Gellately]
  7. [Orlando Figes]
  8. [Donald Rayfield]
  9. Mikhail Heller & Aleksandr Nekrich. Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present.
  10. Book: R. J. Rummel. R. J. Rummel. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. 1990. 1-56000-887-3. 2014-03-01.
  11. http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed
  12. Book: Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914-1921 - Peter Holquist - Google Boeken . 1917-03-08 . 9780674009073 . 2014-03-01. Holquist . Peter . Harvard University Press .
  13. Holquist. Peter. 1997. "Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919. Cahiers du Monde Russe. 38. 1. 127–162. 10.3406/cmr.1997.2486.
  14. Book: Pethybridge, Roger William. One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy. 1990. 978-0-19-821927-9. Oxford University. 255.
  15. Book: Lang, David-Marshall. A Modern History of Soviet Georgia. 1962. 9780700715626. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.. 243.
  16. Book: Rummel, Rudolph J.. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers.
  17. Book: Surguladze, Akaki. The History of Georgia. Tbilisi, Georgia.
  18. Web site: The Kazakh Famine of 1930-33 and the Politics of History in the Post-Soviet Space Wilson Center. 2020-12-07. www.wilsoncenter.org. en.
  19. Book: Sabol, Steven . 'The Touch of Civilization': Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization. University Press of Colorado. 2017. 9781607325505. 47.
  20. Pianciola, Niccolò (2004). "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934". Cahiers du monde russe. 45 (1–2): 137–192.
  21. Pianciola, Niccolò, 2009, Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905-1936), Rome: Viella.
  22. Payne, Matthew J. (2011). "Seeing like a soviet state: settlement of nomadic Kazakhs, 1928–1934". In Alexopoulos, Golgo; Hessler, Julie, eds. Writing the Stalin Era. pp.59–86.
  23. Web site: Holodomor Facts, Definition, & Death Toll. 2020-12-07. Encyclopedia Britannica. en.
  24. http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html. 2019-10-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20191022223817/http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html.
  25. Web site: David . Marples. David R. Marples. 30 November 2005 . The great famine debate goes on... . . https://web.archive.org/web/20080615015541/http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/article.cfm?id=7176. dead. 15 June 2008.
  26. News: Stanislav . Kuchytskyi . https://day.kyiv.ua/uk/article/podrobici/golodomor-1932-1933-rr-yak-genocid-progalini-u-dokazoviy-bazi-1. uk:Голодомор 1932 — 1933 рр. як геноцид: прогалини у доказовій базі. Holodomor 1932–1933 as genocide: gaps in the evidence. uk . Den. 17 February 2007. 20 January 2021.
  27. Marples. David R.. 2009. Ethnic Issues in the Famine of 1932-1933 in Ukraine. Europe-Asia Studies. 61. 3. 505–518. 10.1080/09668130902753325. 27752256. 67783643. 0966-8136.
  28. Robert William Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft, Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History Palgrave Macmillan (2002), chapter The Soviet Famine of 1932–33 and the Crisis in Agriculture p. 69 et seq. http://www.melgrosh.unimelb.edu.au/documents/Davies_Wheatcroft_ch.4_Famine.pdf
  29. Richard Aldous . Stephen . Kotkin . Terrible Talent: Studying Stalin . . 8 November 2017.
  30. Web site: The Future Did Not Work . Getty . J. Arch. J. Arch Getty . 2000 . . 18 July 2020 . "Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan.".
  31. Web site: Payaslian. Simon. 20th Century Genocides. Oxford bibliographies.
  32. Cameron, Sarah (2018). The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-3044-3. p.123
  33. Cameron, Sarah (2018). The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-3044-3. p.123
  34. TsGARK f. 44, op. 12, d. 492, ll. 54, 58
  35. Web site: Blacklisted Entities in Ukraine, 1932-1933 .
  36. Web site: Total Direct Famine Losses of Population per 1,000 by Raion in Ukraine for 1933 .
  37. Web site: Total Direct Famine Losses of Population per 1,000 by Raion in Ukraine for 1933 .
  38. Environment, Empire, and the Great Famine in Stalin's Kazakhstan Niccolò Pianciola
  39. Andriewsky. Olga. 2015-01-23. Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography. East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2. 1. 18–52. 10.21226/T2301N. free.
  40. Web site: Blacklisted Localities (Gallery). gis.huri.harvard.edu. Oct 23, 2022.
  41. Web site: Papakin. Heorhii. 2010-11-27. "Chorni doshky" Holodomoru – ekonomichnyi metod znyshchennia hromadian URSR (SPYSOK). "Black boards" of the Holodomor: An economic method for the destruction of community members of the Ukrainian SSR (list). live. https://web.archive.org/web/20190103054050/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/research/2010/11/27/6591/. 2019-01-03. 2021-01-25. Istorychna Pravda. uk.
  42. Book: Martin, Terry. 2001. The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939. paperback. Ithaca, New York. Cornell University Press. 306–307. 9780801486777. 2 December 2021. Google Books. 'TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom have received information that in the Kuban and Ukraine a massive outflow of peasants 'for bread' has begun into Belorussia and the Central-Black Earth, Volga, Western, and Moscow regions. / TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom do not doubt that the outflow of peasants, like the outflow from Ukraine last year, was organized by the enemies of Soviet power, the SRs and the agents of Poland, with the goal of agitation 'through the peasantry' ... TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom order the OGPU of Belorussia and the Central-Black Earth, Middle Volga, Western and Moscow regions to immediately arrest all 'peasants' of Ukraine and the North Caucasus who have broken through into the north and, after separating out the counterrevolutionariy elements, to return the rest to their place of residence.' ... Molotov, Stalin.
  43. Book: Werth, Nicholas. 1999. A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union. Courtois. Stéphane. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Mark Kraemer . Jonathan Murphy. illustrated hardcover. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press. 164. 9780674076082. 2 December 2021. Google Books.
  44. Ellman. Michael. June 2007. Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/. 14 October 2007. Europe-Asia Studies. Routledge. 59. 4. 663–693. 10.1080/09668130701291899. 53655536.
  45. Kotkin. Stephen. 8 November 2017. Terrible Talent: Studying Stalin. The American Interest. Richard Aldous. 26 November 2021.
  46. Web site: Tauger. Mark. 1 July 2018. Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'. History News Network. George Washington University. 22 October 2019.
  47. Wolowyna. Oleh. October 2020. A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union. Journal of Genocide Research. 23. 4. 501–526. 10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741. 226316468.
  48. Web site: Tauger. Mark. 1 July 2018. Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'. History News Network. George Washington University. 22 October 2019.
  49. Kuhr. Corinna. 1998. Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges. Cahiers du Monde russe. 39. 1/2. 209–20. 10.3406/cmr.1998.2520. 20171081. 1252-6576. According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials [...]. JSTOR.
  50. Web site: François-Xavier. Nérard. 27 February 2009. The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region. Paris Institute of Political Studies. The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror [...] The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document translated in Werth, 2006: 143)..
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