In historical linguistics, Weise's law describes the loss of palatal quality some consonants undergo in specific contexts in the Proto-Indo-European language. In short, when the consonants represented by , called palatovelar consonants, are followed by , they lose their palatal quality, leading to a loss in distinction between them and the plain velar consonants . Some exceptions exist, such as when the is followed by or when the palatal form is restored by analogy with related words. Although this sound change is most prominent in the satem languages, it is believed that the change must have occurred prior to the centum–satem division, based on an earlier sound change which affected the distribution of Proto-Indo-European and . The law is named after the German linguist Oskar Weise, who first postulated it in 1881 as the solution to reconciling cognates in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit.
The Proto-Indo-European language is the hypothetical parent language of the Indo-European languages. The language is believed to have been spoken around the 4th millennium BC, though some linguists argue that the 6th or 7th millennia BC are more likely. No record of the language exists, but its forms have been reconstructed through the comparative method.
Weise's law is a sound change that affects a series of sounds in the Proto-Indo-European language called palatovelar consonants, sometimes called dorso-palatal or simply palatal consonants. The precise pronunciation of these sounds is not known, though they are described as being articulated both with the back part of the tongue and the hard palate of the mouth, represented with , , and . They are contrasted with plain velar consonants, also referred to as dorso-velar or simply velar consonants, which are described as being articulated with the back part of the tongue and the soft palate, represented by , , and . Both of these sets were further contrasted with the labiovelar consonants, likely pronounced with a simultaneous articulation with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate and the rounding of the lips, represented by , , and . These three contrastive sets are often known collectively as guttural consonants.
Although almost no attested language in the Indo-European language family distinguishes between these three sets of consonants, historical linguists divide the Indo-European daughter languages into two categories based on how these sounds developed over time, either into centum or satem languages. The terms centum and satem are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word , later shortened into , meaning 'one hundred'. Centum languages, named after the Latin word for 'one hundred', are those languages in which the palatovelar sounds underwent depalatalization – that is, lost their palatal quality – thereby merging with the plain velars, creating only a two-way contrast between plain velars and labiovelar sounds. By contrast, satem languages, named after the Avestan word for 'one hundred' (Avestan: ), are those in which the labiovelar sounds lost their labialization, causing a lack of differentiation with the plain velar sounds called a merger. The palatovelar sounds, on the other hand, underwent assibilation – also called satemization in this particular context – whereby these palatovelars became sibilant consonants. Sibilant consonants comprise affricates, such as [t͡ʃ] (as in chat), and fricatives, such as [s] (as in sunk).[1]
Oskar Weise first described a problem in correspondences between Ancient Greek and Sanskrit cognates in an 1881 article for the Indo-Europeanist periodical Articles on the Science of the Indo-European Languages (German: Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen) entitled "Is initial γ dropped before λ?" (German: Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?|italics=yes). In it, he notes an imbalance in the relationship between Ancient Greek and Sanskrit cognates, writing:
According to Alwin Kloekhorst in 2011, Weise's original article has "been largely forgotten by the scholarly world", but its findings have appeared sporadically in linguistic literature with some of it needing revision in light of other research. In 1894, Antoine Meillet described the law and defended it as established fact in a dissertation for the Société de Linguistique de Paris on the difficulty of determining gutturals in Proto-Indo-European, citing Weise as its progenitor.[2] In 1978, Frederik Kortlandt similarly considered Weise's findings strong but limited in scope, citing both Weise's and Meillet's works on the law in his own research on the Balto-Slavic languages. In 1995, Robert S. P. Beekes also described the process derived from the law, but did not reference its origins with Weise. Kloekhorst presented a defense of the law at a conference in 2008, followed by a more complete account – Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before *r in Sanskrit – published in 2011. The 2011 defense conglomerates several different sources on the topic, some referencing Weise and some not, and summarizes its general characteristics, its relative chronology, and possible violations; its contents are a revision of his work done in 1999.[3] Kloekhorst has been credited with reviving interest in the law.[4]
Weise's law describes a depalatalization which affects the palatovelar consonants of the Proto-Indo-European language: . In the satem languages, as well as in Albanian and Armenian, these sounds became fricatives, such as pronounced as /[s]/ or pronounced as /[z]/, rather than remaining stops. Weise's law, however, demonstrates that these sounds depalatalize before , thereby merging with the plain velar stops . Because the palatovelar sounds underwent assibilation – that is, underwent the process of becoming sibilants – in the satem languages while the plain velars did not, the merging of palatovelars with plain velars explains why these words have plain velar reflexes in words that share a common Indo-European root containing a palatovelar. In other words, while the palatovelar stops were made into alveolar sibilants in most cases, Weise's law explains many exceptions, though not all. The effects of the law are commonly found in zero-grade stems – that is, stems without their typical vowel – which often receive inserted vowels in the daughter languages in order to ease pronunciation. One such example can be found in Old Avestan Avestan: 'figure, body', which is derived from 'body'. Although the original palatovelar does not immediately precede in the Avestan reflex, it is still in accordance with the depalatalization described by Weise's law since immediately precedes in the zero-grade form .
Sanskrit words contain many potential violations of the rule, particularly in circumstances where the surface representation of the word contains or, implying a derivation from an unmodified or source. However, these are often the result of later sound changes particular to a language or language family. Examples can be found in Sanskrit, where /l/ became /r/ in many circumstances, such as in Sanskrit: श्रवस् 'fame', which is derived from Proto-Indo-European , and Sanskrit: ह्राद् 'to resound, to make a noise', which is derived from . Thus, these apparent counterexamples do not actually represent exceptions to the rule.
Other apparent violations occur in contexts in which the palatovelar consonant and cross a morphemic boundary, such as between an affix and the word it modifies, or share a clear derivational relationship with another word that would not have been subjected to the sound law, leading to an analogical change.[5] In other words, if several words are derived from the same original root word, but only one is derived from a context in which Weise's law would apply, the one originally affected may appear to violate the law later on since the two words may be so closely associated with one another that the form is restored by analogy to the others. One such example of this is Sanskrit Sanskrit: अज्र 'field, plain', which is derived from 'field, pasturage'; in this example, the expected outcome is Sanskrit: *अग्र, but the reflex of the palatal consonant has been restored due to an obvious connection with Sanskrit: अजति 'to drive', derived from the same root ( 'to drive') but in a context that would not subject it to the sound change.
All other violations of the rule appear in the particular sequence , where Ḱ represents any palatovelar sound. Kloekhorst suggests that the high front vowel may have palatalized the preceding , giving no motivation to depalatalize the initial palatovelar sound.[6]
The chronology of Weise's law is the subject of some debate. The depalatalization described by the law must have occurred by at least the time the Indo-Iranian languages diverged from the rest of Proto-Indo-European . Kloekhorst argues that it probably occurred much earlier, after the divergence of the Anatolian languages, since the distribution of late Proto-Indo-European and underwent an exchange in placement, or metathesis, which only occurred after both the Anatolian language family had diverged from Proto-Indo-European and palatovelars had undergone the depalatalization described by Weise's law. This explains exceptions such as Sanskrit Sanskrit: श्मश्रु 'beard', which derives from the form rather than from the earlier , attested in Hittite Hittite: 'beard'. The Sanskrit form does not show depalatalization because the depalatalization occurred only in environments where the palatovelar was followed by prior to this metathesis.
In 1978, Frederik Kortlandt noted that, while it is tempting to assert that Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian depalatalizations derive from a common innovation, the scope of depalatalization is much larger in the Balto-Slavic languages and there is positive evidence that this kind of depalatalization never occurred in Armenian, pointing to examples like Armenian: սրունք 'leg' from Proto-Indo-European and Armenian: մերձ 'near, close to' from . Instead, Kortlandt suggested that Weise's law applies only to Indo-Iranian languages and, although Indo-Iranian languages and Balto-Slavic languages restored palatal features in a similar fashion, these restorations occurred independent of one another. Based on Albanian and Balto-Slavic agreement in depalatalization, he considers Albanian to have been a transitional dialect of Balto-Slavic and Armenian during the same period. Robert S. P. Beekes, disputing some of Kortlandt's etymologies, wrote that depalatalization is assumed to have taken place before in Armenian as well.
Although the effects of the law are most clearly demonstrated in satem languages, Kloekhorst suggests that this sound change occurred before the centum–satem split, arguing that it almost certainly occurred in late Proto-Indo-European after the departure of the Anatolian languages. Because their reflexes appear to be in accordance with the law, Kloekhorst groups Albanian and Armenian in with the satem languages. He further notes that it is likely that secondary depalatalizations took place at a later date in each of the satem language families outside the Indo-Iranian languages, as depalatalization is more extensive in those languages.
fr:Charles de Lamberterie
. February 2015 . Chronique d'étymologie grecque n°15 . Chronicle of Greek Etymology, Number 15 . fr . Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes . 89 . 2 . 117–172 . 10.3917/phil.892.0117 . free."French: Or on a constaté depuis longtemps que les cas de correspondance α′β sont particulièrement fréquents dans le voisinage de certains phonèmes: après ''u'' (de Saussure, dans ces Mémoires, 6, 161) et devant ''r'' (Weise, dans Bezz. Beit., 6, 115).|italic=unset"
"This article is a revision of my Dutch; Flemish: Kleine Scriptie (~ BA thesis) [...] written in 1999 [...]"
"French: italic=no|Selon ce auteur, d'après une loi établie par O. Weise et remise en honneur par A. Kloekhorst [...]"
"It is therefore attractive to assume that in the sequence the palatovelar was not depalatalized because the itself was phonetically somewhat palatalized due to the following ."