Women in Hinduism explained

Hindu texts present diverse views on the position of women, ranging from feminine leadership as the highest goddess, to limiting gender roles. The Devi Sukta hymn of Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, declares the feminine energy as the essence of the universe, the one who creates all matter and consciousness, the eternal and infinite, the metaphysical and empirical reality (Brahman), the soul, (supreme self) of everything. The woman is celebrated as the most powerful and the empowering force in some Hindu Upanishads, Sastras and Puranas, particularly the Devi Upanishad, Devi Mahatmya and Devi-Bhagavata Purana.[1] [2] Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts present a diverse picture of duties and rights of women in Hinduism. The texts recognize eight kinds of marriage, ranging from father finding a marriage partner for his daughter and seeking her consent (Brahma or Devic marriage), to the bride and groom finding each other without parental participation (Gandharva marriage) and paishachik (against God's blessing) marriage by force against woman, not following varnashram dharm and without parents blessing.[3] Scholars state that Vedic-era Hindu texts did not have the practice of Dowry or Sati. These practices likely became widespread sometime in the 2nd millennium CE from socio-political developments in the Indian subcontinent. Throughout history, Hindu society has seen many female rulers, such as Rudramadevi, religious figures and saints, such as Andal, philosophers, such as Maitreyi, and female practitioners/ conductors of Vedic Hindu rituals.[4] [5]

Hinduism, states Bryant, has the strongest presence of the divine feminine among major world religions, from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Shiva Hindu traditions.[6] [7] Matriarchal theology is quite prevalent in Sanskritic traditions and village Hinduism relating to the worship of Shakti, and there are numerous Hindu communities that are matriarchal.

Ancient texts

Vedic literature

Verses of ancient texts show that Vedism expounds reverence for the feminine. Like of the 10th chapter of the Rigveda, the part that has long been included here, is one that asserts the feminine to be the supreme principle behind all of cosmos.

The following hymn is called Devi Sukta,

UpanishadsThe Devi Sukta ideas of the Rigveda are further developed in the relatively later composed Shakta Upanishads, states McDaniel, where the Devi asserts that she is Brahman, from her arise Prakṛti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness), she is bliss and non-bliss, the Vedas and what is different from it, the born and the unborn, and the feminine is thus all of the universe. She is presented as all the five elements, as well as all that is different from these elements, what is above, what is below, what is around, and thus the universe in its entirety. This philosophy is also found in the Tripuratapani Upanishad and the Bahvricha Upanishad.

The early Upanishads are, however, generally silent about women and men, and focus predominantly on gender-less Brahman and its relation to Atman (Soul, Self). There are occasional exceptions. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, composed about 800 BCE, for example, in the last chapter detailing the education of a student, include lessons for his Grihastha stage of life.[8] There, the student is taught, that as a husband, he should cook rice for the wife, and they together eat the food in certain way depending on whether they wish for the birth of a daughter or a son, as follows,[8]

Women are mentioned and are participants in the philosophical debates of the Upanishads, as well as scholars, teachers and priestesses during the Vedic and early Buddhist age.[9] Among women acknowledged in the Upanishads are Gargi and Maitreyi.[9] In Sanskrit, the word acharyā means a "female teacher" (versus acharya meaning "teacher") and an acharyini is a teacher's wife, indicating that some women were known as gurus.

Female characters appear in plays and epic poems. The 8th century poet, Bhavabhuti describes in his play, Uttararamacharita (verse 2 - 3), how the character, Atreyi, travelled to southern India where she studied the Vedas and Indian philosophy. In Madhava's Shankaradigvijaya, Shankara debates with the female philosopher, Ubhaya Bharati and in verses 9 - 63 it is mentioned that she was well versed in the Vedas. Tirukkoneri Dasyai, a 15th-century scholar, wrote a commentary on Nammalvar's Tiruvaayamoli, with reference to Vedic texts such as the Taittiriya Yajurveda.

The Hindu historical epics

In the two Hindu historical epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the role of women is multiple. The main female character in the Mahabharata, Draupadi is married to all the five Pandavas due to Mata Kunti's directive to distribute without seeing what has been brought by Pandavas, thus had five husbands. She is insulted by Duryodhana, but Lord Krishna came to her rescue.[10] This insult was one of the main reasons for the great war in restoring the honor of their woman. In the Ramayana, Sita is respected, honored, portrayed as wise and seen as inseparable from Rama and beloved but lived as a homemaker, the ideal wife and partner to Rama. While in the Adbhut Ramayana Sita is the most powerful and the destroyer of evil. In the Hindu dharma, women's oral readings of the Ramayana at home bring peace, happiness, good progeny, good health and relives family from bad luck and bad health.The Epics are divinely ordained to Rishis and seen thru divinely vision, and carry precepts of dharma embedded in them, suggesting perceived notions about women in Hinduism at the time the Epics were composed. The Mahabharata, in Book 1, for example, states,The Anushasana Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata has several chapters dedicated to the discussion about duties and right of women. It gives a mixed picture. In chapter 11, the goddess of wealth and prosperity Lakshmi asserts, that she (her divinity) lives in those women who are truthful, sincere, modest, organized, devoted to their husband and children, health conscious, patient and kind to parents, parent in laws and guests.[11] The goddess asserts she does not reside in woman who is sinful, unclean, always disagreeing with her husband, has no patience or fortitude, is lazy, quarrelsome with her neighbors and relatives.

In chapter 47, as Yudhishthira seeks guidance on Dharma from Bhishma, the Anushasana Parva compares the value of daughter to a son, as follows,

The duties of women are again recited in Chapter 146, as a conversation between god Shiva and his wife goddess Uma, where Shiva asks what are the duties of women. Devi Uma (Parvati) proceeds to meet all the rivers, who are all goddesses that nourish and create fertile valleys.[12] Uma suggests that the duties of women include being of a good disposition, endued with sweet speech, sweet conduct, and sweet features, but at the same time be capable to sustain her own life(which can require being tough) if situation comes. For a woman, claims Uma, her husband is a God(and vice versa), her husband is her friend, and her husband is her high refuge(and vice versa). A woman's duties include physical and emotional nourishment, reverence and fulfillment of her husband and her children. Their happiness is her happiness, she observes the same vows as those that are observed by her husband, her duty is to be cheerful even when her husband or her children are angry, be there for them in adversity or sickness, is regarded as truly righteous in her conduct. Beyond her husband and family, her duty is to be cheerful of heart and humble with friends and relatives, do the best she can for friends and guests. Her family life and her home is her heaven, tells goddess Parvati to Shiva.Anushasana Parva has served as a source for modern era texts on women in Hinduism. For example, Tryambakayajvan of Thanjavur, in the 18th-century CE, published Strīdharmapaddhati (or "Guide for a Dharmic Woman"). Tryambaka, according to Julia Leslie,[13] selectively extracts verses from many chapters of Anushasana Parva. He selectively extracts verses from other books of the Mahabharata as well, and other ancient Indian texts, for Strīdharmapaddhati, choosing those he preferred, omitting verses from the Mahabharata that represent its characteristic style of presenting many voices and counter-arguments.[14]

Shastras and Smritis

See main article: Smriti, Dharmaśāstra and Manusmriti. The characterization and treatment of women is mixed in Shastras and Smriti texts of Hinduism. Scholars have questioned the later date insertions, corruption and authenticity of the texts, as dozens of significantly different versions of the Smriti texts have been found. Patrick Olivelle for example, who is credited with a 2005 translation of Manusmriti published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (abridged),

Arthashastra, in chapter 1.21 describes women who had received military education and served to protect the king; the text also mentions female artisans, mendicants, and women who were wandering ascetics.[15] [16]

One of the most studied about the position of women in medieval Hindu society has been a now contested Calcutta manuscript of Manusmriti. The text preaches chastity to widows such as in verses 5.158-5.160.[17] In verses 2.67-2.69 and 5.148-5.155, Manusmriti preaches that as a girl, she should respect and seek protection of her father, as a young woman her husband, and as a widow her son and should receive the same respect from them as well, and that a woman should always worship her husband as a god and vice-versa.[18] [19]

In other verses, Manusmriti respects and safeguards women rights. Manusmriti in verses 3.55-3.56, for example, declares that "women must be honored and adorned", and "where women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no sacred rite bears any fruit".[20] [21] Elsewhere, in verses 5.147-5.148, states Olivelle, the text declares, "a woman must never seek to live independently".[22]

Divorce

The text declares that a marriage cannot be dissolved by a woman or a man, in verse 8.101-8.102.[23] Yet, the text, in other sections, allows either to dissolve the marriage. For example, verses 9.72-9.81 allow the man or the woman to get out of a fraudulent marriage or an abusive marriage, and remarry; the text also provides legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been missing or has abandoned her.[24]

Arthashastra is a Mauryan era text on governance. However, it is not a religious Hindu book per se. Rather, it is an irreligious and secular book on governance to help and guide the Mauryan Emperors. Its author, Kautilya, argued in favour of a secular state based on dharma, a word which means "righteousness" in Sanskrit (often mistranslated as "religion").[25] It states:

A woman, hating her husband, can not dissolve her marriage with him against his will. Nor can a man dissolve his marriage with his wife against her will. But from mutual enmity, divorce may be obtained (parasparam dveshánmokshah). If a man, apprehending danger from his wife desires divorce (mokshamichhet), he shall return to her whatever she was given (on the occasion of her marriage). If a woman, under the apprehension of danger from her husband, desires divorce, she shall forfeit her claim to her property; marriages contracted in accordance with the customs of the first four kinds of marriages cannot be dissolved.[26] [27]

Varna

The word Varna means colour or skin colour. For example the word for Gold is Sanskrit is Suvarna or Good Colour. This indicates that Varna or Caste system has origins in some form of apartheid based on race. The text in one section opposes a woman marrying someone outside her own (varna) as in verses 3.13-3.14.[17] Simultaneously, states Olivelle, the text presupposes numerous practices such as marriages outside varna, such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman in verses 9.149-9.157, a widow getting pregnant with a child of a man she is not married to in verses 9.57-9.62, marriage where a woman in love elopes with her man, and then grants legal rights in these cases such as property inheritance rights in verses 9.143-9.157, and the legal rights of the children so born.[28] The text also presumes that a married woman may get pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicates verses 8.31-8.56 to conclude that the child's custody belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the man she got pregnant with.[29] [30]

Property rights

Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights to six types of property in verses 9.192-9.200. These include those she received at her marriage, or as gift when she eloped or when she was taken away, or as token of love before marriage, or as gifts from her biological family, or as received from her husband subsequent to marriage, and also from an inheritance from deceased relatives.[31]

Inconsistency and authenticity issues

Scholars state that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be authentic. Further, the verses are internally inconsistent.[32] Verses such as 3.55-3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify the position of women, while verse such as 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite.[33] Mahatma Gandhi, when asked about his view about the Smriti, stated, that "there are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it. (...) Nobody is in possession of the original text [of Manusmriti].[34]

Flavia Agnes states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from women's rights perspective, and the British colonial era codification of women's rights based on it for Hindus, and from Islamic texts for Muslims, picked and emphasized certain aspects while it ignored other sections.[35] This construction of personal law during the colonial era created a legal fiction around Manusmriti's historic role as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia.[35] [36]

Puranas

The Puranas, particularly the Devi Mahatmya found in Markandeya Maha-Purana, and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana have some of the most dedicated discussion of Devi and sacred feminine in late ancient and early medieval era of Hinduism.[1] [2] However, the discussion is not limited to these two major Hindu Goddess religion-related texts. Women are found in philosophical discussions across numerous other Puranas and extant era texts. For example, Parvati in a discussion with her husband Shiva, remarks:

Feminine symbolism as being sacred and for reverence were present in ancient Hindu texts, but these were fragmentary states Brown, and it was around the sixth century CE, possibly in northwest India, that the concept of Maha-Devi coalesced as the Great Goddess, appearing in the text of Devi Mahatmya of Markandeya Purana. This development of the divine woman was not theoretical, according to Brown, but has impacted "self understanding of Hindus to the present day" and "what it means to be human in a universe that is infinite and yet is pervaded by the very human quality of a woman's care and anger". Devi Mahatmya, also called Durga Saptasati (or 700 verses to Durga), has been enormously popular among Hindus through the centuries, states Coburn. Devi Mahatmya does not attempt to prove that the female is supreme, but assumes it as a given and its premise. This idea influenced the role of women in Hinduism in the Puranic texts that followed for centuries, where male-dominated and female-dominated couples appear, in various legends, in the same religious text and Hindu imagination.

The Devi Mahatmya presents the idea, states McDaniel, of a divine she who creates this universe, is the supreme knowledge, who helps herself and men reach final liberation, she is multitasking who in times of prosperity is Lakshmi brings wealth and happiness to human homes, yet in times of adversity feeds and fights the battle as the angry woman destroying demons and evil in the universe after metamorphosing into Durga, Chandika, Ambika, Bhadrakali, Ishvari, Bhagvati, Sri or Devi. However, notes Brown, the celebration of the goddess as supreme in Devi Mahatmya is not universal in Hindu texts of 1st millennium CE, and other Puranic texts celebrate the god as supreme, while acknowledging supreme goddess in various chapters and presenting the female as the "effective power behind any male" either in mythological sense or theological sense or both.

The ideas of the 6th-century Devi Mahatmya are adopted in 11th-century text of Devi-Bhagavata Purana, another goddess-classic text of Shakti tradition of Hinduism. However, this text emphasizes devotion and love as the path to her supreme nature as goddess. In the latter text, Devi appears as a warrior goddess destroying demons, a world-mother nurturing the good, as the creator, the sustainer and the destroyer as different aspects of her, the one supreme.

Gender of God

See main article: Devi, God and gender in Hinduism and Hindu deities. In Hinduism, specifically in the Advaita Vedanta, the impersonal Absolute (Brahman) is genderless. Both male gods (Deva) and female gods (Devi) are found in Hinduism. But many Shaktism and other sects describes the main ultimate God is as feminine energy (The Mother Goddess 'Shakti' ; shakti translates to, .Power and strength) and relates it with a mother being the most important and ultimate God and all the creation is through her. Some Hindu traditions conceive God as androgynous (both female and male), or as either male or female, while cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.[37] [38]

Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have both gods and goddesses. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine deva of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine devi.[39] Followers of Shaktism, worship the goddess Devi as the embodiment of Shakti (feminine strength or power).[40]

The popular misconception that there exist millions of Hindu deities,[41] all the deities are personification of different aspects related to life and universe (God as trees, Ocean rivers, Mountains, Ocean, The Sun, The Moon, The 8 planets, The Milky way Galaxy, etc.). However, most, by far, are goddesses (Shakti, Devi, or mother), state Foulston and Abbott, suggesting "how important and popular goddesses are" in Hindu culture. Though in general, they are smaller, there are far more goddess temples than those of gods. Goddesses are most of the time, if not always seen as powerful, and when unmarried, seen as dangerous (to the evil). Despite the patriarchal nature of post modern Hindu society, women are seen as powerful alongside the Gods, and at certain times, dangerous.[42] No one has a list of the millions of goddesses and gods, but all deities, state scholars, are typically viewed in Hinduism as "emanations or manifestation of gender-less principle called Brahman, representing the many facets of Ultimate Reality".[42] [41] In Hinduism, "God, the universe, all beings [male, female] and all else are essentially one thing," and are interconnected, depicting their oneness and the same god manifested in every being as Atman, the eternal Self.[43] [44]

Ancient and medieval Hindu literature, state scholars, is richly endowed with gods, goddesses and androgynous representations of God.[45] This, states Gross, is in contrast with several monotheistic religions, where God is often synonymous with "He" and theism is replete with male anthropomorphisms.[45] In Hinduism, goddess-imagery does not mean loss of male-god, rather the ancient literature presents the two genders as balancing each other and complementary. The Goddesses in Hinduism, states Gross,[45] are strong, beautiful and confident, symbolizing their vitality in the cycle of life. While masculine Gods are symbolically represented as those who act, the feminine Goddesses are symbolically portrayed as those who inspire action.[45] Goddesses in Hinduism are envisioned as the patrons of arts, culture, nurture, learning, arts, joys, spirituality and liberation.[45] [46]

Dignity

Hinduism does not regard Women as lacking dignity, therefore there are not many specific quotes about affirming women's dignity. However, there are many references in the primary and secondary Hindu texts that affirm the dignity of women. Many stories from the Upanishads of female scholars, such as Jābālā's tale, Maitreyi, Gārgī, Lopāmudrā, and Haimavatī Umā, demonstrate the dignity accorded to Women. According to verse 6.4.17 from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the birth of a female child who would be scholar is desired. The quote prescribes the specific rituals for obtaining a learned daughter.

Verse 6.4.17 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad:
अथ य इच्छेद्दुहिता मे पण्डिता जायेत, सर्वमायुरियादिति, तिलौदनं पाचयित्वा सर्पिष्मन्तमश्नीयाताम्; ईश्वरौ जनयितवै ॥ १७ ॥
atha ya icchedduhitā me paṇḍitā jāyeta, sarvamāyuriyāditi, tilaudanaṃ pācayitvā sarpiṣmantamaśnīyātām; īśvarau janayitavai || 17 ||
"One who wishes that a daughter should be born who would be a scholar and attain a full term of life, should have rice cooked with sesamum, and both should eat it with clarified butter. Then the creators (would-be parents) would indeed be able to produce such a daughter."[47]

Will Durant (1885–1981) American historian says in his book Story of Civilization:

Women enjoyed far greater freedom in the Vedic period than in later India. She had more to say in the choice of her mate than the forms of marriage might suggest. She appeared freely at feasts and dances, and joined with men in religious sacrifice. She could study, and like Gargi, engage in philosophical disputation. If she was left a widow there were no restrictions upon her remarriage.[48] [49]

Practices

Marriage

See main article: Hindu wedding. The Asvalayana Grhyasutra text of Hinduism identifies eight forms of marriages. Of these first four – Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya – are declared appropriate and recommended by the text, next two – Gandharva and Asura – are declared inappropriate but acceptable, and the last two – Rakshasa and Paishacha – are declared evil and unacceptable (but any children resulting were granted legal rights).[50] [51]

  1. Brahma marriage - considered the religiously most appropriate marriage, where the father finds an educated man, proposes the marriage of his daughter to him. The groom, bride, and families willingly concur with the proposal. The two families and relatives meet, the girl is ceremoniously decorated, the father gifts away his daughter in betrothal, and a Vedic marriage ceremony is conducted. This type of wedding is now most prevalent among Hindus in modern India.[50]
  2. Daiva marriage - in this type of marriage, the father gives away his daughter along with ornaments to a priest.
  3. Arsha marriage - in this type of marriage, the groom gives a cow and a bull to the father of the bride and the father exchanges his daughter in marriage. The groom took a vow to fulfill his obligations to the bride and family life (Grihasthashram).
  4. Prajapatya marriage - in this type of marriage, a couple agree to get married by exchanging some Sanskrit mantras (vows to each other). This form of marriage was akin to a civil ceremony.
  5. Gandharva marriage - in this type of marriage, the couple simply lives together out of love, by mutual consent, consensually consummating their relationship. This marriage is entered into without religious ceremonies, and was akin to the Western concept of Common-law marriage. Kama Sutra, as well as Rishi Kanva - the foster-father of Shakuntala - in the Mahabharata, claimed this kind of marriage to be an ideal one.[51]
  6. Asura marriage - in this type of marriage, the groom offered a dowry to the father of the bride and the bride, both accepted the dowry out of free will, and he received the bride in exchange. This was akin to marrying off a daughter for money. This marriage was considered inappropriate by Hindu Smriti-writers because greed, not what is best for the girl, can corrupt the selection process.[51] Manusmriti verses 3.51 and 3.52, for example, states that a father or relatives must never accept any brideprice because that amounts to trafficking of the daughter.[52]
  7. Rakshasa marriage - where the groom forcibly abducted the girl against her and her family's will. The word Rakshasa means 'devil'.
  8. Paishacha marriage - where the man forces himself on a woman when she is insentient, that is drugged or drunken or unconscious.

James Lochtefeld finds that the last two forms of marriage were forbidden yet recognized in ancient Hindu societies, not to encourage these acts, but to provide the woman and any children with legal protection in the society.[50]

Dowry

The concept and practice of dowry in ancient and medieval Hindu society is unclear. Some scholars believe dowry was practiced in historic Hindu society, but some do not. Historical eyewitness reports (discussed below), suggest dowry in pre-11th century CE Hindu society was insignificant, and daughters had inheritance rights, which by custom were exercised at the time of her marriage.

Stanley J. Tambiah states the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India, but dowry was the more prestigious form and associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) caste. Bridewealth was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to suggest that this pattern of dowry in upper castes and bridewealth in lower castes has persisted through the first half of the 20th century.[53]

Michael Witzel, in contrast, states the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period.[54] Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers.[54] Kane states ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind.[55]

Historical and epigraphical evidence from ancient India suggests dowry was not the standard practice in ancient Hindu society. Arrian of Alexander the Great's conquest era, in his first book, mentions a lack of dowry, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian.[56]

Arrian's second book similarly notes,

About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, Al-Biruni a Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years in 11th century CE, wrote,

Widowhood and remarriage

Widows were traditionally expected to pursue a spiritual, ascetic life, particularly the higher castes such as Brahmins.[57] There were restrictions on remarriage as well. The Hindu widows were not allowed to wear jewellery, they had to consume tasteless food, and they had to wear a white coarse saree without choli or blouse covering their breasts.[58] Such restrictions are now strictly observed only by a small minority of widows, yet the belief continues that "a good wife predeceases her husband".[57] [58]

During the debate before the passage of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, some communities asserted that it was their ancient custom that prohibited widow remarriage. Hindu scholars and colonial British authorities rejected this argument, states Lucy Carroll, because the alleged custom prohibiting widow remarriage was "far from ancient", and was already in practice among the Hindu communities such as the Rajbansi whose members had petitioned for the prohibition of widow remarriage. Thus, it failed the "customary law" protections under the British colonial era laws.[59] [60] However, this issue lingered in colonial courts for decades, because of the related issue of property left by the deceased husband, and whether the widow keeps or forfeits all rights to deceased Hindu husband's estate and thereby transfers the property from the deceased husband to her new husband. While Hindu community did not object to widow remarriage, it contested the property rights and transfer of property from her earlier husband's family to the later husband's family, particularly after the death of the remarried widow, in the 20th-century.[61]

Sati

See main article: Sati (practice). As visible in this watercolour illustration of the Sati process drawn by a Company artist, it is evident that the Sati process was forced upon widows in ancient India. The picture shows a widow on the funeral pyre surrounded by the King’s soldiers preventing any possibility of escape by the widow from the burning pyre.

The Victoria and Albert Museum in London has a collection of such paintings on the Subject of Sati, readily available through internet search engines, which show widows being either drowned or burnt on husband’s funeral pyre or buried alive. Widows had no value in Indian society and Hindu Kings ensured using their army, that they did not have any widows in their territory. This is in stark contrast to widowers who were allowed to remarry again and again. There have been many instances of how the widows were shunned in India and therefore, the only solution for a life without husband was to practice Sati.

In modern times 18 year old Roop Kanwar seems to be the last recorded case in Rajasthan, according to India Today that took place in 1989.

Despite the elimination of Sati, the position of widows remains precarious in India.

The underlying cause of all violence directed at widows in India is to defraud them of their property rights and their assets left by their departed husband. Sati is an Indian funeral custom where a widow was forced to immolate herself on her husband's pyre, or committed was buried alive after her husband's death.[62] [63] [64] Michael Witzel states there is no evidence of Sati practice in ancient Indian literature during the Vedic period.[54]

David Brick, in his 2010 review of ancient Indian literature, states[65]

The earliest scholarly discussion of Sati, whether it is right or wrong, is found in the Sanskrit literature dated to 10th- to 12th-century.[66] The earliest known commentary on Sati by Medhātithi of Kashmir argues that Sati is a form of suicide, which is prohibited by the Vedic tradition.[65] Vijñāneśvara, of the 12th-century Chalukya court, and the 13th-century Madhvacharya, argue that sati should not to be considered suicide, which was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures.[67] They offer a combination of reasons, both in favor and against sati.[68] However, according to the textbook, "Religions in the Modern World", after the death of Roop Kanwar on her husband's funeral pyre in 1987, thousands saw this as cruel murder. Committing sati was then made a crime, with consequences worse than murder.[69]

Another historical practice observed among women in Hinduism, was the Rajput practice of Jauhar, particularly in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, where they collectively committed suicide during war. They preferred death rather than being captured alive and dishonored by victorious Muslim soldiers in a war.[70] According to Bose, jauhar practice grew in the 14th and 15th century with Hindu-Muslim wars of northwest India, where the Hindu women preferred death than the slavery or rape they faced if captured.[71] [72] Sati-style jauhar custom among Hindu women was observed only during Hindu-Muslim wars in medieval India, but not during internecine Hindu-Hindu wars among the Rajputs.[73]

The Sati practice is considered to have originated within the warrior aristocracy in the Hindu society, gradually gaining in popularity from the 10th century AD and spreading to other groups from the 12th through 18th century AD.[74] The earliest Islamic invasions of South Asia have been recorded from early 8th century CE, such as the raids of Muhammad bin Qasim, and major wars of Islamic expansion after the 10th century.[75] This chronology has led to the theory that the increase in sati practice in India may be related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia.[76] [77] Daniel Grey states that the understanding of origins and spread of sati were distorted in the colonial era because of a concerted effort to push "problem Hindu" theories in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[78]

Education

The Vedas and Upanishads mention girls could be a Brahmacharini, that is getting an education. Atharva Veda, for example, states[79]

Notes and References

  1. C. Mackenzie Brown (1990), The Triumph of the Goddess, State University of New York Press, ISBN, page 77
  2. Thomas Coburn (2002), Devī Māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass,, pages 138, 303-309
  3. Rajbali Pandey (1969), Hindu Sanskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments,, pages 158-170 and Chapter VIII
  4. Book: Liljeström. Marianne. Working with Affect in Feminist Readings: Disturbing Differences. Paasonen. Susanna. 2010-03-08. Routledge. 978-1-134-01789-8. 122. en.
  5. Book: Kramarae. Cheris. Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge. Spender. Dale. 2004-04-16. Routledge. 978-1-135-96315-6. 1059. en.
  6. David Kinsley (2005), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press,, pages 6-17, 55-64
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